Andisnotamanreproachedforflatteryandmeannesswhosubordinatesthespiritedanimaltotheunrulymonster，and，forthesakeofmoney，ofwhichhecanneverhaveenough，habituateshiminthedaysofhisyouthtobetrampledinthemire，andfrombeingaliontobecomeamonkey？
True，hesaid。
AndwhyaremeanemploymentsandmanualartsareproachOnlybecausetheyimplyanaturalweaknessofthehigherprinciple；theindividualisunabletocontrolthecreatureswithinhim，buthastocourtthem，andhisgreatstudyishowtoflatterthem。
Suchappearstobethereason。
Andtherefore，beingdesirousofplacinghimunderarulelikethatofthebest，wesaythatheoughttobetheservantofthebest，inwhomtheDivinerules；not，asThrasymachussupposed，totheinjuryoftheservant，butbecauseeveryonehadbetterberuledbydivinewisdomdwellingwithinhim；or，ifthisbeimpossible，thenbyanexternalauthority，inorderthatwemaybeall，asfaraspossible，underthesamegovernment，friendsandequals。
True，hesaid。
Andthisisclearlyseentobetheintentionofthelaw，whichistheallyofthewholecity；andisseenalsointheauthoritywhichweexerciseoverchildren，andtherefusaltoletthembefreeuntilwehaveestablishedinthemaprincipleanalogoustotheconstitutionofastate，andbycultivationofthishigherelementhavesetupintheirheartsaguardianandrulerlikeourown，andwhenthisisdonetheymaygotheirways。
Yes，hesaid，thepurposeofthelawismanifest。
Fromwhatpointofview，then，andonwhatgroundcanwesaythatamanisprofitedbyinjusticeorintemperanceorotherbaseness，whichwillmakehimaworseman，eventhoughheacquiremoneyorpowerbyhiswickedness？
Fromnopointofviewatall。
Whatshallheprofit，ifhisinjusticebeundetectedandunpunished？
Hewhoisundetectedonlygetsworse，whereashewhoisdetectedandpunishedhasthebrutalpartofhisnaturesilencedandhumanized；thegentlerelementinhimisliberated，andhiswholesoulisperfectedandennobledbytheacquirementofjusticeandtemperanceandwisdom，morethanthebodyeverisbyreceivinggiftsofbeauty，strengthandhealth，inproportionasthesoulismorehonourablethanthebody。
Certainly，hesaid。
Tothisnoblerpurposethemanofunderstandingwilldevotetheenergiesofhislife。Andinthefirstplace，hewillhonourstudieswhichimpressthesequalitiesonhissoulanddisregardothers？
Clearly，hesaid。
Inthenextplace，hewillregulatehisbodilyhabitandtraining，andsofarwillhebefromyieldingtobrutalandirrationalpleasures，thathewillregardevenhealthasquiteasecondarymatter；hisfirstobjectwillbenotthathemaybefairorstrongorwell，unlessheislikelytherebytogaintemperance，buthewillalwaysdesiresotoattemperthebodyastopreservetheharmonyofthesoul？
Certainlyhewill，ifhehastruemusicinhim。
Andintheacquisitionofwealththereisaprincipleoforderandharmonywhichhewillalsoobserve；hewillnotallowhimselftobedazzledbythefoolishapplauseoftheworld，andheapuprichestohisowninfiniteharm？
Certainlynot，hesaid。
Hewilllookatthecitywhichiswithinhim，andtakeheedthatnodisorderoccurinit，suchasmightariseeitherfromsuperfluityorfromwant；anduponthisprinciplehewillregulatehispropertyandgainorspendaccordingtohismeans。
Verytrue。
And，forthesamereason，hewillgladlyacceptandenjoysuchhonoursashedeemslikelytomakehimabetterman；butthose，whetherprivateorpublic，whicharelikelytodisorderhislife，hewillavoid？
Then，ifthatishismotive，hewillnotbeastatesman。
BythedogofEgypt，hewill！inthecitywhich’shisownhecertainlywill，thoughinthelandofhisbirthperhapsnot，unlesshehaveadivinecall。
Iunderstand；youmeanthathewillbearulerinthecityofwhichwearethefounders，andwhichexistsinideaonly；forIdonotbelievethatthereissuchanoneanywhereonearth？
Inheaven，Ireplied，thereislaidupapatternofit，methinks，whichhewhodesiresmaybehold，andbeholding，maysethisownhouseinorder。Butwhethersuchanoneexists，oreverwillexistinfact，isnomatter；forhewillliveafterthemannerofthatcity，havingnothingtodowithanyother。
Ithinkso，hesaid。
BOOKX
SOCRATES—GLAUCON
OFTHEmanyexcellenceswhichIperceiveintheorderofourState，thereisnonewhichuponreflectionpleasesmebetterthantheruleaboutpoetry。
Towhatdoyourefer？
Totherejectionofimitativepoetry，whichcertainlyoughtnottobereceived；asIseefarmoreclearlynowthatthepartsofthesoulhavebeendistinguished。
Whatdoyoumean？
Speakinginconfidence，forIshouldnotliketohavemywordsrepeatedtothetragediansandtherestoftheimitativetribe——butI
donotmindsayingtoyou，thatallpoeticalimitationsareruinoustotheunderstandingofthehearers，andthattheknowledgeoftheirtruenatureistheonlyantidotetothem。
Explainthepurportofyourremark。
Well，Iwilltellyou，althoughIhavealwaysfrommyearliestyouthhadanaweandloveofHomer，whichevennowmakesthewordsfalteronmylips，forheisthegreatcaptainandteacherofthewholeofthatcharmingtragiccompany；butamanisnottobereverencedmorethanthetruth，andthereforeIwillspeakout。
Verygood，hesaid。
Listentomethen，orrather，answerme。
Putyourquestion。
Canyoutellmewhatimitationis？forIreallydonotknow。
Alikelything，then，thatIshouldknow。
Whynot？forthedullereyemayoftenseeathingsoonerthanthekeener。
Verytrue，hesaid；butinyourpresence，evenifIhadanyfaintnotion，Icouldnotmustercouragetoutterit。Willyouenquireyourself？
Wellthen，shallwebegintheenquiryinourusualmanner：
Wheneveranumberofindividualshaveacommonname，weassumethemtohavealsoacorrespondingideaorform。Doyouunderstandme？
Ido。
Letustakeanycommoninstance；therearebedsandtablesintheworld——plentyofthem，aretherenot？
Yes。
Butthereareonlytwoideasorformsofthem——onetheideaofabed，theotherofatable。
True。
Andthemakerofeitherofthemmakesabedorhemakesatableforouruse，inaccordancewiththeidea——thatisourwayofspeakinginthisandsimilarinstances——butnoartificermakestheideasthemselves：howcouldhe？
Impossible。
Andthereisanotherartist，——Ishouldliketoknowwhatyouwouldsayofhim。
Whoishe？
Onewhoisthemakerofalltheworksofallotherworkmen。
Whatanextraordinaryman！
Waitalittle，andtherewillbemorereasonforyoursayingso。Forthisishewhoisabletomakenotonlyvesselsofeverykind，butplantsandanimals，himselfandallotherthings——theearthandheaven，andthethingswhichareinheavenorundertheearth；hemakesthegodsalso。
Hemustbeawizardandnomistake。
Oh！youareincredulous，areyou？Doyoumeanthatthereisnosuchmakerorcreator，orthatinonesensetheremightbeamakerofallthesethingsbutinanothernot？Doyouseethatthereisawayinwhichyoucouldmakethemallyourself？
Whatway？
Aneasywayenough；orrather，therearemanywaysinwhichthefeatmightbequicklyandeasilyaccomplished，nonequickerthanthatofturningamirrorroundandround——youwouldsoonenoughmakethesunandtheheavens，andtheearthandyourself，andotheranimalsandplants，andallthe，otherthingsofwhichwewerejustnowspeaking，inthemirror。
Yes，hesaid；buttheywouldbeappearancesonly。
Verygood，Isaid，youarecomingtothepointnow。Andthepaintertoois，asIconceive，justsuchanother——acreatorofappearances，ishenot？
Ofcourse。
ButthenIsupposeyouwillsaythatwhathecreatesisuntrue。
Andyetthereisasenseinwhichthepainteralsocreatesabed？
Yes，hesaid，butnotarealbed。
Andwhatofthemakerofthebed？Wereyounotsayingthathetoomakes，nottheideawhich，accordingtoourview，istheessenceofthebed，butonlyaparticularbed？
Yes，Idid。
Thenifhedoesnotmakethatwhichexistshecannotmaketrueexistence，butonlysomesemblanceofexistence；andifanyoneweretosaythattheworkofthemakerofthebed，orofanyotherworkman，hasrealexistence，hecouldhardlybesupposedtobespeakingthetruth。
Atanyrate，hereplied，philosopherswouldsaythathewasnotspeakingthetruth。
Nowonder，then，thathisworktooisanindistinctexpressionoftruth。
Nowonder。
Supposenowthatbythelightoftheexamplesjustofferedweenquirewhothisimitatoris？
Ifyouplease。
Wellthen，herearethreebeds：oneexistinginnature，whichismadebyGod，asIthinkthatwemaysay——fornooneelsecanbethemaker？
No。
Thereisanotherwhichistheworkofthecarpenter？
Yes。
Andtheworkofthepainterisathird？
Yes。
Beds，then，areofthreekinds，andtherearethreeartistswhosuperintendthem：God，themakerofthebed，andthepainter？
Yes，therearethreeofthem。
God，whetherfromchoiceorfromnecessity，madeonebedinnatureandoneonly；twoormoresuchidealbedsneithereverhavebeennoreverwillbemadebyGod。
Whyisthat？
BecauseevenifHehadmadebuttwo，athirdwouldstillappearbehindthemwhichbothofthemwouldhavefortheiridea，andthatwouldbetheidealbedandthetwoothers。
Verytrue，hesaid。
Godknewthis，andHedesiredtobetherealmakerofarealbed，notaparticularmakerofaparticularbed，andthereforeHecreatedabedwhichisessentiallyandbynatureoneonly。
Sowebelieve。
Shallwe，then，speakofHimasthenaturalauthorormakerofthebed？
Yes，hereplied；inasmuchasbythenaturalprocessofcreationHeistheauthorofthisandofallotherthings。
Andwhatshallwesayofthecarpenter——isnothealsothemakerofthebed？
Yes。
Butwouldyoucallthepainteracreatorandmaker？
Certainlynot。
Yetifheisnotthemaker，whatisheinrelationtothebed？
Ithink，hesaid，thatwemayfairlydesignatehimastheimitatorofthatwhichtheothersmake。
Good，Isaid；thenyoucallhimwhoisthirdinthedescentfromnatureanimitator？
Certainly，hesaid。
Andthetragicpoetisanimitator，andtherefore，likeallotherimitators，heisthriceremovedfromthekingandfromthetruth？
Thatappearstobeso。
Thenabouttheimitatorweareagreed。Andwhataboutthepainter？
——Iwouldliketoknowwhetherhemaybethoughttoimitatethatwhichoriginallyexistsinnature，oronlythecreationsofartists？
Thelatter。
Astheyareorastheyappear？Youhavestilltodeterminethis。
Whatdoyoumean？
Imean，thatyoumaylookatabedfromdifferentpointsofview，obliquelyordirectlyorfromanyotherpointofview，andthebedwillappeardifferent，butthereisnodifferenceinreality。Andthesameofallthings。
Yes，hesaid，thedifferenceisonlyapparent。
Nowletmeaskyouanotherquestion：Whichistheartofpaintingdesignedtobe——animitationofthingsastheyare，orastheyappear——ofappearanceorofreality？
Ofappearance。
Thentheimitator，Isaid，isalongwayoffthetruth，andcandoallthingsbecausehelightlytouchesonasmallpartofthem，andthatpartanimage。Forexample：Apainterwillpaintacobbler，carpenter，oranyotherartist，thoughheknowsnothingoftheirarts；
and，ifheisagoodartist，hemaydeceivechildrenorsimplepersons，whenheshowsthemhispictureofacarpenterfromadistance，andtheywillfancythattheyarelookingatarealcarpenter。
Certainly。
Andwheneveranyoneinformsusthathehasfoundamanknowsallthearts，andallthingselsethatanybodyknows，andeverysinglethingwithahigherdegreeofaccuracythananyotherman——whoevertellsusthis，Ithinkthatwecanonlyimaginetobeasimplecreaturewhoislikelytohavebeendeceivedbysomewizardoractorwhomhemet，andwhomhethoughtall—knowing，becausehehimselfwasunabletoanalysethenatureofknowledgeandignoranceandimitation。
Mosttrue。
Andso，whenwehearpersonssayingthatthetragedians，andHomer，whoisattheirhead，knowalltheartsandallthingshuman，virtueaswellasvice，anddivinethingstoo，forthatthegoodpoetcannotcomposewellunlessheknowshissubject，andthathewhohasnotthisknowledgecanneverbeapoet，weoughttoconsiderwhetherherealsotheremaynotbeasimilarillusion。Perhapstheymayhavecomeacrossimitatorsandbeendeceivedbythem；theymaynothaverememberedwhentheysawtheirworksthatthesewerebutimitationsthriceremovedfromthetruth，andcouldeasilybemadewithoutanyknowledgeofthetruth，becausetheyareappearancesonlyandnotrealities？Or，afterall，theymaybeintheright，andpoetsdoreallyknowthethingsaboutwhichtheyseemtothemanytospeaksowell？
Thequestion，hesaid，shouldbyallmeansbeconsidered。
Nowdoyousupposethatifapersonwereabletomaketheoriginalaswellastheimage，hewouldseriouslydevotehimselftotheimage—makingbranch？Wouldheallowimitationtobetherulingprincipleofhislife，asifhehadnothinghigherinhim？
Ishouldsaynot。
Therealartist，whoknewwhathewasimitating，wouldbeinterestedinrealitiesandnotinimitations；andwoulddesiretoleaveasmemorialsofhimselfworksmanyandfair；and，insteadofbeingtheauthorofencomiums，hewouldprefertobethethemeofthem。
Yes，hesaid，thatwouldbetohimasourceofmuchgreaterhonourandprofit。
Then，Isaid，wemustputaquestiontoHomer；notaboutmedicine，oranyoftheartstowhichhispoemsonlyincidentallyrefer：wearenotgoingtoaskhim，oranyotherpoet，whetherhehascuredpatientslikeAsclepius，orleftbehindhimaschoolofmedicinesuchastheAsclepiadswere，orwhetherheonlytalksaboutmedicineandotherartsatsecondhand；butwehavearighttoknowrespectingmilitarytactics，politics，education，whicharethechiefestandnoblestsubjectsofhispoems，andwemayfairlyaskhimaboutthem。’FriendHomer，’thenwesaytohim，’ifyouareonlyinthesecondremovefromtruthinwhatyousayofvirtue，andnotinthethird——notanimagemakerorimitator——andifyouareabletodiscernwhatpursuitsmakemenbetterorworseinprivateorpubliclife，telluswhatStatewaseverbettergovernedbyyourhelp？ThegoodorderofLacedaemonisduetoLycurgus，andmanyothercitiesgreatandsmallhavebeensimilarlybenefitedbyothers；butwhosaysthatyouhavebeenagoodlegislatortothemandhavedonethemanygood？ItalyandSicilyboastofCharondas，andthereisSolonwhoisrenownedamongus；butwhatcityhasanythingtosayaboutyou？’Isthereanycitywhichhemightname？
Ithinknot，saidGlaucon；noteventheHomeridsthemselvespretendthathewasalegislator。
Well，butisthereanywaronrecordwhichwascarriedonsuccessfullybyhim，oraidedbyhiscounsels，whenhewasalive？
Thereisnot。
Oristhereanyinventionofhis，applicabletotheartsortohumanlife，suchasThalestheMilesianorAnacharsistheScythian，andotheringeniousmenhaveconceived，whichisattributedtohim？
Thereisabsolutelynothingofthekind。
But，ifHomerneverdidanypublicservice，washeprivatelyaguideorteacherofany？Hadheinhislifetimefriendswholovedtoassociatewithhim，andwhohandeddowntoposterityanHomericwayoflife，suchaswasestablishedbyPythagoraswhowassogreatlybelovedforhiswisdom，andwhosefollowersaretothisdayquitecelebratedfortheorderwhichwasnamedafterhim？
Nothingofthekindisrecordedofhim。Forsurely，Socrates，Creophylus，thecompanionofHomer，thatchildofflesh，whosenamealwaysmakesuslaugh，mightbemorejustlyridiculedforhisstupidity，if，asissaid，Homerwasgreatlyneglectedbyhimandothersinhisowndaywhenhewasalive？
Yes，Ireplied，thatisthetradition。Butcanyouimagine，Glaucon，thatifHomerhadreallybeenabletoeducateandimprovemankind——ifhehadpossessedknowledgeandnotbeenamereimitator——canyouimagine，Isay，thathewouldnothavehadmanyfollowers，andbeenhonouredandlovedbythem？ProtagorasofAbdera，andProdicusofCeos，andahostofothers，haveonlytowhispertotheircontemporaries：’YouwillneverbeabletomanageeitheryourownhouseoryourownStateuntilyouappointustobeyourministersofeducation’——andthisingeniousdeviceoftheirshassuchaneffectinmakingthemlovethemthattheircompanionsallbutcarrythemaboutontheirshoulders。AndisitconceivablethatthecontemporariesofHomer，oragainofHesiod，wouldhaveallowedeitherofthemtogoaboutasrhapsodists，iftheyhadreallybeenabletomakemankindvirtuous？Wouldtheynothavebeenasunwillingtopartwiththemaswithgold，andhavecompelledthemtostayathomewiththem？Or，ifthemasterwouldnotstay，thenthediscipleswouldhavefollowedhimabouteverywhere，untiltheyhadgoteducationenough？
Yes，Socrates，that，Ithink，isquitetrue。
Thenmustwenotinferthatallthesepoeticalindividuals，beginningwithHomer，areonlyimitators；theycopyimagesofvirtueandthelike，butthetruththeyneverreach？Thepoetislikeapainterwho，aswehavealreadyobserved，willmakealikenessofacobblerthoughheunderstandsnothingofcobbling；andhispictureisgoodenoughforthosewhoknownomorethanhedoes，andjudgeonlybycoloursandfigures。
Quiteso。
Inlikemannerthepoetwithhiswordsandphrasesmaybesaidtolayonthecoloursoftheseveralarts，himselfunderstandingtheirnatureonlyenoughtoimitatethem；andotherpeople，whoareasignorantasheis，andjudgeonlyfromhiswords，imaginethatifhespeaksofcobbling，orofmilitarytactics，orofanythingelse，inmetreandharmonyandrhythm，hespeaksverywell——suchisthesweetinfluencewhichmelodyandrhythmbynaturehave。AndIthinkthatyoumusthaveobservedagainandagainwhatapoorappearancethetalesofpoetsmakewhenstrippedofthecolourswhichmusicputsuponthem，andrecitedinsimpleprose。
Yes，hesaid。
Theyarelikefaceswhichwereneverreallybeautiful，butonlyblooming；andnowthebloomofyouthhaspassedawayfromthem？
Exactly。
Hereisanotherpoint：Theimitatorormakeroftheimageknowsnothingoftrueexistence；heknowsappearancesonly。AmInotright？
Yes。
Thenletushaveaclearunderstanding，andnotbesatisfiedwithhalfanexplanation。
Proceed。
Ofthepainterwesaythathewillpaintreins，andhewillpaintabit？
Yes。
Andtheworkerinleatherandbrasswillmakethem？
Certainly。
Butdoesthepainterknowtherightformofthebitandreins？
Nay，hardlyeventheworkersinbrassandleatherwhomakethem；
onlythehorsemanwhoknowshowtousethem——heknowstheirrightform。
Mosttrue。
Andmaywenotsaythesameofallthings？
What？
Thattherearethreeartswhichareconcernedwithallthings：onewhichuses，anotherwhichmakes，athirdwhichimitatesthem？
Yes。
Andtheexcellenceorbeautyortruthofeverystructure，animateorinanimate，andofeveryactionofman，isrelativetotheuseforwhichnatureortheartisthasintendedthem。
True。
Thentheuserofthemmusthavethegreatestexperienceofthem，andhemustindicatetothemakerthegoodorbadqualitieswhichdevelopthemselvesinuse；forexample，theflute—playerwilltelltheflute—makerwhichofhisflutesissatisfactorytotheperformer；hewilltellhimhowheoughttomakethem，andtheotherwillattendtohisinstructions？
Ofcourse。
Theoneknowsandthereforespeakswithauthorityaboutthegoodnessandbadnessofflutes，whiletheother，confidinginhim，willdowhatheistoldbyhim？
True。
Theinstrumentisthesame，butabouttheexcellenceorbadnessofitthemakerwillonlyattaintoacorrectbelief；andthishewillgainfromhimwhoknows，bytalkingtohimandbeingcompelledtohearwhathehastosay，whereastheuserwillhaveknowledge？
True。
Butwilltheimitatorhaveeither？Willheknowfromusewhetherornohisdrawingiscorrectorbeautiful？Orwillhehaverightopinionfrombeingcompelledtoassociatewithanotherwhoknowsandgiveshiminstructionsaboutwhatheshoulddraw？
Neither。
Thenhewillnomorehavetrueopinionthanhewillhaveknowledgeaboutthegoodnessorbadnessofhisimitations？
Isupposenot。
Theimitativeartistwillbeinabrilliantstateofintelligenceabouthisowncreations？