Thenletusnowproceedtodescribetheinferiorsortofnatures，beingthecontentiousandambitious，whoanswertotheSpartanpolity；
alsotheoligarchical，democratical，andtyrannical。Letusplacethemostjustbythesideofthemostunjust，andwhenweseethemweshallbeabletocomparetherelativehappinessorunhappinessofhimwholeadsalifeofpurejusticeorpureinjustice。Theenquirywillthenbecompleted。Andweshallknowwhetherweoughttopursueinjustice，asThrasymachusadvises，orinaccordancewiththeconclusionsoftheargumenttopreferjustice。
Certainly，hereplied，wemustdoasyousay。
Shallwefollowouroldplan，whichweadoptedwithaviewtoclearness，oftakingtheStatefirstandthenproceedingtotheindividual，andbeginwiththegovernmentofhonour？——Iknowofnonameforsuchagovernmentotherthantimocracy，orperhapstimarchy。Wewillcomparewiththisthelikecharacterintheindividual；and，afterthat，consideroligarchicalman；andthenagainwewillturnourattentiontodemocracyandthedemocraticalman；
andlastly，wewillgoandviewthecityoftyranny，andoncemoretakealookintothetyrant’ssoul，andtrytoarriveatasatisfactorydecision。
Thatwayofviewingandjudgingofthematterwillbeverysuitable。
First，then，Isaid，letusenquirehowtimocracy（thegovernmentofhonour）arisesoutofaristocracy（thegovernmentofthebest）。
Clearly，allpoliticalchangesoriginateindivisionsoftheactualgoverningpower；agovernmentwhichisunited，howeversmall，cannotbemoved。
Verytrue，hesaid。
Inwhatway，then，willourcitybemoved，andinwhatmannerthetwoclassesofauxiliariesandrulersdisagreeamongthemselvesorwithoneanother？Shallwe，afterthemannerofHomer，praytheMusestotellus’howdiscordfirstarose’？Shallweimaginetheminsolemnmockery，toplayandjestwithusasifwewerechildren，andtoaddressusinaloftytragicvein，makingbelievetobeinearnest？
Howwouldtheyaddressus？
Afterthismanner：——Acitywhichisthusconstitutedcanhardlybeshaken；but，seeingthateverythingwhichhasabeginninghasalsoanend，evenaconstitutionsuchasyourswillnotlastforever，butwillintimebedissolved。Andthisisthedissolution：——Inplantsthatgrowintheearth，aswellasinanimalsthatmoveontheearth’ssurface，fertilityandsterilityofsoulandbodyoccurwhenthecircumferencesofthecirclesofeacharecompleted，whichinshort—livedexistencespassoverashortspace，andinlong—livedonesoveralongspace。Buttotheknowledgeofhumanfecundityandsterilityallthewisdomandeducationofyourrulerswillnotattain；
thelawswhichregulatethemwillnotbediscoveredbyanintelligencewhichisalloyedwithsense，butwillescapethem，andtheywillbringchildrenintotheworldwhentheyoughtnot。Nowthatwhichisofdivinebirthhasaperiodwhichiscontainedinaperfectnumber，buttheperiodofhumanbirthiscomprehendedinanumberinwhichfirstincrementsbyinvolutionandevolution（orsquaredandcubed）
obtainingthreeintervalsandfourtermsoflikeandunlike，waxingandwaningnumbers，makeallthetermscommensurableandagreeabletooneanother。Thebaseofthese（3）withathirdadded（4）whencombinedwithfive（20）andraisedtothethirdpowerfurnishestwoharmonies；thefirstasquarewhichisahundredtimesasgreat（400=
4X100），andtheotherafigurehavingonesideequaltotheformer，butoblong，consistingofahundrednumberssquareduponrationaldiametersofasquare（i。e。omittingfractions），thesideofwhichisfive（7X7=49X100=4900），eachofthembeinglessbyone（thantheperfectsquarewhichincludesthefractions，sc。50）
orlessbytwoperfectsquaresofirrationaldiameters（ofasquarethesideofwhichisfive=5050=100）；andahundredcubesofthree（27X100=27004900400=8000）。Nowthisnumberrepresentsageometricalfigurewhichhascontroloverthegoodandevilofbirths。Forwhenyourguardiansareignorantofthelawofbirths，andunitebrideandbridegroomoutofseason，thechildrenwillnotbegoodlyorfortunate。Andthoughonlythebestofthemwillbeappointedbytheirpredecessors，stilltheywillbeunworthytoholdtheirfathers’places，andwhentheycomeintopowerasguardians，theywillsoonbefoundtofallintakingcareofus，theMuses，firstbyunder—valuingmusic；whichneglectwillsoonextendtogymnastic；andhencetheyoungmenofyourStatewillbelesscultivated。Inthesucceedinggenerationrulerswillbeappointedwhohavelosttheguardianpoweroftestingthemetalofyourdifferentraces，which，likeHesiod’s，areofgoldandsilverandbrassandiron。Andsoironwillbemingledwithsilver，andbrasswithgold，andhencetherewillarisedissimilarityandinequalityandirregularity，whichalwaysandinallplacesarecausesofhatredandwar。ThistheMusesaffirmtobethestockfromwhichdiscordhassprung，whereverarising；andthisistheiranswertous。
Yes，andwemayassumethattheyanswertruly。
Why，yes，Isaid，ofcoursetheyanswertruly；howcantheMusesspeakfalsely？
AndwhatdotheMusessaynext？
Whendiscordarose，thenthetworacesweredrawndifferentways：
theironandbrassfelltoacquiringmoneyandlandandhousesandgoldandsilver；butthegoldandsilverraces，notwantingmoneybuthavingthetruerichesintheirownnature，inclinedtowardsvirtueandtheancientorderofthings。Therewasabattlebetweenthem，andatlasttheyagreedtodistributetheirlandandhousesamongindividualowners；andtheyenslavedtheirfriendsandmaintainers，whomtheyhadformerlyprotectedintheconditionoffreemen，andmadeofthemsubjectsandservants；andtheythemselveswereengagedinwarandinkeepingawatchagainstthem。
Ibelievethatyouhaverightlyconceivedtheoriginofthechange。
Andthenewgovernmentwhichthusariseswillbeofaformintermediatebetweenoligarchyandaristocracy？
Verytrue。
Suchwillbethechange，andafterthechangehasbeenmade，howwilltheyproceed？Clearly，thenewState，beinginameanbetweenoligarchyandtheperfectState，willpartlyfollowoneandpartlytheother，andwillalsohavesomepeculiarities。
True，hesaid。
Inthehonourgiventorulers，intheabstinenceofthewarriorclassfromagriculture，handicrafts，andtradeingeneral，intheinstitutionofcommonmeals，andintheattentionpaidtogymnasticsandmilitarytraining——inalltheserespectsthisStatewillresembletheformer。
True。
Butinthefearofadmittingphilosopherstopower，becausetheyarenolongertobehadsimpleandearnest，butaremadeupofmixedelements；andinturningfromthemtopassionateandlesscomplexcharacters，whoarebynaturefittedforwarratherthanpeace；andinthevaluesetbythemuponmilitarystratagemsandcontrivances，andinthewagingofeverlastingwars——thisStatewillbeforthemostpartpeculiar。
Yes。
Yes，Isaid；andmenofthisstampwillbecovetousofmoney，likethosewholiveinoligarchies；theywillhave，afiercesecretlongingaftergoldandsilver，whichtheywillhoardindarkplaces，havingmagazinesandtreasuriesoftheirownforthedepositandconcealmentofthem；alsocastleswhicharejustnestsfortheireggs，andinwhichtheywillspendlargesumsontheirwives，oronanyotherswhomtheyplease。
Thatismosttrue，hesaid。
Andtheyaremiserlybecausetheyhavenomeansofopenlyacquiringthemoneywhichtheyprize；theywillspendthatwhichisanotherman’sonthegratificationoftheirdesires，stealingtheirpleasuresandrunningawaylikechildrenfromthelaw，theirfather：
theyhavebeenschoolednotbygentleinfluencesbutbyforce，fortheyhaveneglectedherwhoisthetrueMuse，thecompanionofreasonandphilosophy，andhavehonouredgymnasticmorethanmusic。
Undoubtedly，hesaid，theformofgovernmentwhichyoudescribeisamixtureofgoodandevil。
Why，thereisamixture，Isaid；butonething，andonethingonly，ispredominantlyseen，——thespiritofcontentionandambition；andtheseareduetotheprevalenceofthepassionateorspiritedelement。
Assuredly，hesaid。
SuchistheoriginandsuchthecharacterofthisState，whichhasbeendescribedinoutlineonly；themoreperfectexecutionwasnotrequired，forasketchisenoughtoshowthetypeofthemostperfectlyjustandmostperfectlyunjust；andtogothroughalltheStatesandallthecharactersofmen，omittingnoneofthem，wouldbeaninterminablelabour。
Verytrue，hereplied。
Nowwhatmananswerstothisformofgovernment—howdidhecomeintobeing，andwhatishelike？
SOCRATES—ADEIMANTUS
Ithink，saidAdeimantus，thatinthespiritofcontentionwhichcharacteriseshim，heisnotunlikeourfriendGlaucon。
Perhaps，Isaid，hemaybelikehiminthatonepoint；butthereareotherrespectsinwhichheisverydifferent。
Inwhatrespects？
Heshouldhavemoreofself—assertionandbelesscultivated，andyetafriendofculture；andheshouldbeagoodlistener，butnospeaker。Suchapersonisapttoberoughwithslaves，unliketheeducatedman，whoistooproudforthat；andhewillalsobecourteoustofreemen，andremarkablyobedienttoauthority；heisaloverofpowerandaloverofhonour；claimingtobearuler，notbecauseheiseloquent，oronanygroundofthatsort，butbecauseheisasoldierandhasperformedfeatsofarms；heisalsoaloverofgymnasticexercisesandofthechase。
Yes，thatisthetypeofcharacterwhichanswerstotimocracy。
Suchanonewilldespiserichesonlywhenheisyoung；butashegetsolderhewillbemoreandmoreattractedtothem，becausehehasapieceoftheavariciousnatureinhim，andisnotsinglemindedtowardsvirtue，havinglosthisbestguardian。
Whowasthat？saidAdeimantus。
Philosophy，Isaid，temperedwithmusic，whocomesandtakesherabodeinaman，andistheonlysaviourofhisvirtuethroughoutlife。
Good，hesaid。
Such，Isaid，isthetimocraticalyouth，andheislikethetimocraticalState。
Exactly。
Hisoriginisasfollows：——Heisoftentheyoungsonofagravefather，whodwellsinanill—governedcity，ofwhichhedeclinesthehonoursandoffices，andwillnotgotolaw，orexerthimselfinanyway，butisreadytowaivehisrightsinorderthathemayescapetrouble。
Andhowdoesthesoncomeintobeing？
Thecharacterofthesonbeginstodevelopwhenhehearshismothercomplainingthatherhusbandhasnoplaceinthegovernment，ofwhichtheconsequenceisthatshehasnoprecedenceamongotherwomen。
Further，whensheseesherhusbandnotveryeageraboutmoney，andinsteadofbattlingandrailinginthelawcourtsorassembly，takingwhateverhappenstohimquietly；andwhensheobservesthathisthoughtsalwayscentreinhimself，whilehetreatsherwithveryconsiderableindifference，sheisannoyed，andsaystohersonthathisfatherisonlyhalfamanandfartooeasy—going：addingalltheothercomplaintsaboutherownill—treatmentwhichwomenaresofondofrehearsing。
Yes，saidAdeimantus，theygiveusplentyofthem，andtheircomplaintsaresolikethemselves。
Andyouknow，Isaid，thattheoldservantsalso，whoaresupposedtobeattachedtothefamily，fromtimetotimetalkprivatelyinthesamestraintotheson；andiftheyseeanyonewhoowesmoneytohisfather，oriswronginghiminanyway，andhefallstoprosecutethem，theytelltheyouththatwhenhegrowsuphemustretaliateuponpeopleofthissort，andbemoreofamanthanhisfather。Hehasonlytowalkabroadandhehearsandseesthesamesortofthing：thosewhodotheirownbusinessinthecityarecalledsimpletons，andheldinnoesteem，whilethebusy—bodiesarehonouredandapplauded。Theresultisthattheyoungman，hearingandseeingallthesething——hearingtoo，thewordsofhisfather，andhavinganearerviewofhiswayoflife，andmakingcomparisonsofhimandothers——isdrawnoppositeways：whilehisfatheriswateringandnourishingtherationalprincipleinhissoul，theothersareencouragingthepassionateandappetitive；andhebeingnotoriginallyofabadnature，buthavingkeptbadcompany，isatlastbroughtbytheirjointinfluencetoamiddlepoint，andgivesupthekingdomwhichiswithinhimtothemiddleprincipleofcontentiousnessandpassion，andbecomesarrogantandambitious。
Youseemtometohavedescribedhisoriginperfectly。
Thenwehavenow，Isaid，thesecondformofgovernmentandthesecondtypeofcharacter？
Wehave。
Next，letuslookatanothermanwho，asAeschylussays，IssetoveragainstanotherState；
orrather，asourplanrequires，beginwiththeState。
Byallmeans。
Ibelievethatoligarchyfollowsnextinorder。
Andwhatmannerofgovernmentdoyoutermoligarchy？
Agovernmentrestingonavaluationofproperty，inwhichtherichhavepowerandthepoormanisdeprivedofit。
Iunderstand，hereplied。
OughtInottobeginbydescribinghowthechangefromtimocracytooligarchyarises？
Yes。
Well，Isaid，noeyesarerequiredinordertoseehowtheonepassesintotheother。
How？
Theaccumulationofgoldinthetreasuryofprivateindividualsisruintheoftimocracy；theyinventillegalmodesofexpenditure；forwhatdotheyortheirwivescareaboutthelaw？
Yes，indeed。
Andthenone，seeinganothergrowrich，seekstorivalhim，andthusthegreatmassofthecitizensbecomeloversofmoney。
Likelyenough。
Andsotheygrowricherandricher，andthemoretheythinkofmakingafortunethelesstheythinkofvirtue；forwhenrichesandvirtueareplacedtogetherinthescalesofthebalance，theonealwaysrisesastheotherfalls。
True。
AndinproportionasrichesandrichmenarehonouredintheState，virtueandthevirtuousaredishonoured。
Clearly。
Andwhatishonourediscultivated，andthatwhichhasnohonourisneglected。
Thatisobvious。
Andsoatlast，insteadoflovingcontentionandglory，menbecomeloversoftradeandmoney；theyhonourandlookuptotherichman，andmakearulerofhim，anddishonourthepoorman。
Theydoso。
Theynextproceedtomakealawwhichfixesasumofmoneyasthequalificationofcitizenship；thesumishigherinoneplaceandlowerinanother，astheoligarchyismoreorlessexclusive；andtheyallownoonewhosepropertyfallsbelowtheamountfixedtohaveanyshareinthegovernment。Thesechangesintheconstitutiontheyeffectbyforceofarms，ifintimidationhasnotalreadydonetheirwork。
Verytrue。
Andthis，speakinggenerally，isthewayinwhicholigarchyisestablished。
Yes，hesaid；butwhatarethecharacteristicsofthisformofgovernment，andwhatarethedefectsofwhichwewerespeaking？
Firstofall，Isaid，considerthenatureofthequalificationjustthinkwhatwouldhappenifpilotsweretobechosenaccordingtotheirproperty，andapoormanwererefusedpermissiontosteer，eventhoughhewereabetterpilot？
Youmeanthattheywouldshipwreck？
Yes；andisnotthistrueofthegovernmentofanything？
Ishouldimagineso。
Exceptacity？——orwouldyouincludeacity？
Nay，hesaid，thecaseofacityisthestrongestofall，inasmuchastheruleofacityisthegreatestandmostdifficultofall。
This，then，willbethefirstgreatdefectofoligarchy？
Clearly。
Andhereisanotherdefectwhichisquiteasbad。
Whatdefect？
Theinevitabledivision：suchaStateisnotone，buttwoStates，theoneofpoor，theotherofrichmen；andtheyarelivingonthesamespotandalwaysconspiringagainstoneanother。
That，surely，isatleastasbad。
Anotherdiscreditablefeatureis，that，foralikereason，theyareincapableofcarryingonanywar。Eithertheyarmthemultitude，andthentheyaremoreafraidofthemthanoftheenemy；or，iftheydonotcallthemoutinthehourofbattle，theyareoligarchsindeed，fewtofightastheyarefewtorule。Andatthesametimetheirfondnessformoneymakesthemunwillingtopaytaxes。
Howdiscreditable！
And，aswesaidbefore，undersuchaconstitutionthesamepersonshavetoomanycallings——theyarehusbandmen，tradesmen，warriors，allinone。Doesthatlookwell？
Anythingbutwell。
Thereisanotherevilwhichis，perhaps，thegreatestofall，andtowhichthisStatefirstbeginstobeliable。
Whatevil？
Amanmaysellallthathehas，andanothermayacquirehisproperty；yetafterthesalehemaydwellinthecityofwhichheisnolongerapart，beingneithertrader，norartisan，norhorseman，norhoplite，butonlyapoor，helplesscreature。
Yes，thatisanevilwhichalsofirstbeginsinthisState。
Theeviliscertainlynotpreventedthere；foroligarchieshaveboththeextremesofgreatwealthandutterpoverty。
True。
Butthinkagain：Inhiswealthydays，whilehewasspendinghismoney，wasamanofthissortawhitmoregoodtotheStateforthepurposesofcitizenship？Ordidheonlyseemtobeamemberoftherulingbody，althoughintruthhewasneitherrulernorsubject，butjustaspendthrift？
Asyousay，heseemedtobearuler，butwasonlyaspendthrift。
Maywenotsaythatthisisthedroneinthehousewhoislikethedroneinthehoneycomb，andthattheoneistheplagueofthecityastheotherisofthehive？
Justso，Socrates。
AndGodhasmadetheflyingdrones，Adeimantus，allwithoutstings，whereasofthewalkingdroneshehasmadesomewithoutstingsbutothershavedreadfulstings；ofthestinglessclassarethosewhointheiroldageendaspaupers；ofthestingerscomeallthecriminalclass，astheyaretermed。
Mosttrue，hesaid。
Clearlythen，wheneveryouseepaupersinaState，somewhereinthatneighborhoodtherearehiddenawaythieves，andcutpursesandrobbersoftemples，andallsortsofmalefactors。
Clearly。
Well，Isaid，andinoligarchicalStatesdoyounotfindpaupers？
Yes，hesaid；nearlyeverybodyisapauperwhoisnotaruler。
Andmaywebesoboldastoaffirmthattherearealsomanycriminalstobefoundinthem，rogueswhohavestings，andwhomtheauthoritiesarecarefultorestrainbyforce？
Certainly，wemaybesobold。
Theexistenceofsuchpersonsistobeattributedtowantofeducation，ill—training，andanevilconstitutionoftheState？
True。
Such，then，istheformandsucharetheevilsofoligarchy；andtheremaybemanyotherevils。
Verylikely。
Thenoligarchy，ortheformofgovernmentinwhichtherulersareelectedfortheirwealth，maynowbedismissed。LetusnextproceedtoconsiderthenatureandoriginoftheindividualwhoanswerstothisState。
Byallmeans。
Doesnotthetimocraticalmanchangeintotheoligarchicalonthiswise？
How？
Atimearriveswhentherepresentativeoftimocracyhasason：atfirsthebeginsbyemulatinghisfatherandwalkinginhisfootsteps，butpresentlyheseeshimofasuddenfounderingagainsttheStateasuponasunkenreef，andheandallthathehasislost；
hemayhavebeenageneralorsomeotherhighofficerwhoisbroughttotrialunderaprejudiceraisedbyinformers，andeitherputtodeath，orexiled，ordeprivedoftheprivilegesofacitizen，andallhispropertytakenfromhim。
Nothingmorelikely。
Andthesonhasseenandknownallthis——heisaruinedman，andhisfearhastaughthimtoknockambitionandpassionhead—foremostfromhisbosom’sthrone；humbledbypovertyhetakestomoney—makingandbymeanandmiserlysavingsandhardworkgetsafortunetogether。
Isnotsuchanonelikelytoseattheconcupiscentandcovetouselementonthevacantthroneandtosufferittoplaythegreatkingwithinhim，girtwithtiaraandchainandscimitar？
Mosttrue，hereplied。
Andwhenhehasmadereasonandspiritsitdownonthegroundobedientlyoneithersideoftheirsovereign，andtaughtthemtoknowtheirplace，hecompelstheonetothinkonlyofhowlessersumsmaybeturnedintolargerones，andwillnotallowtheothertoworshipandadmireanythingbutrichesandrichmen，ortobeambitiousofanythingsomuchastheacquisitionofwealthandthemeansofacquiringit。
Ofallchanges，hesaid，thereisnonesospeedyorsosureastheconversionoftheambitiousyouthintotheavariciousone。
Andtheavaricious，Isaid，istheoligarchicalyouth？
Yes，hesaid；atanyratetheindividualoutofwhomhecameisliketheStateoutofwhicholigarchycame。
Letusthenconsiderwhetherthereisanylikenessbetweenthem。
Verygood。
First，then，theyresembleoneanotherinthevaluewhichtheysetuponwealth？
Certainly。
Alsointheirpenurious，laboriouscharacter；theindividualonlysatisfieshisnecessaryappetites，andconfineshisexpendituretothem；hisotherdesireshesubdues，undertheideathattheyareunprofitable。
True。
Heisashabbyfellow，whosavessomethingoutofeverythingandmakesapurseforhimself；andthisisthesortofmanwhomthevulgarapplaud。IshenotatrueimageoftheStatewhichherepresents？
Heappearstometobeso；atanyratemoneyishighlyvaluedbyhimaswellasbytheState。
Youseethatheisnotamanofcultivation，Isaid。
Iimaginenot，hesaid；hadhebeeneducatedhewouldneverhavemadeablindgoddirectorofhischorus，orgivenhimchiefhonour。
Excellent！Isaid。Yetconsider：Mustwenotfurtheradmitthatowingtothiswantofcultivationtherewillbefoundinhimdronelikedesiresasofpauperandrogue，whichareforciblykeptdownbyhisgeneralhabitoflife？
True。
Doyouknowwhereyouwillhavetolookifyouwanttodiscoverhisrogueries？
WheremustIlook？
Youshouldseehimwherehehassomegreatopportunityofactingdishonestly，asintheguardianshipofanorphan。
Aye。