Stillwetakeitthatforonemostimportantpurposethevillein\'slandisthelord\'sland：——thelordmustanswerforthegeldthatisduefromit。Notthattheburdenfallsultimatelyonthelord。Onthecontrary，itisnotunlikelythathemakeshisvilleinspaythegeldthatisduefromhisdemesneland；itisoneoftheirservicesthattheymust\'defendtheirlord\'sinland\'againstthegeld。Butoveragainstthestatethelordrepresentsaswellthelandofhisvilleinsashisowndemesneland。Fromthegreatlevyof1084thedemesnelandsofthebaronshadbeenexempted，76*butnodoubttheyhadbeenresponsibleforthetaxassessedonthelandsheldbytheirvillani。Wemuchdoubtwhetherthecollectorsofthegeldwentroundtothecottagesofthevilleinsanddemandedheresixpenceandtherefourpence；theypresentedthemselvesatthelord\'shallandaskedforalargesum。Nay，webelievethatveryoftenaperfectlyfreetenantpaidhisgeldtohislord，orthroughhislord。77*Hencearrangementsbywhichsomehidesweremadetoacquitotherhides；such，forexample，wasthearrangementatTewkesbury；therewerefiftyhideswhichhadtoacquitthewholeninety-fivehidesfromallgeldandroyalservice。78*Andthenitmightbethatthelord，enjoyingaspecialprivilege，wasentitledtotakethegeldfromhistenantsandyetpaidnogeldtotheking；thusdidthecanonsofStPetrocinCornwall79*
andthemonksofStEdmundinSuffolk。80*Butasregardslandsoccupiedbyvilleins，theking，soitseemstous，looksforhisgeldtothelordandhedoesnotlookbehindthelord。Thisisnodetailofafiscalsystem。Apotentforcehasthusbeensetinmotion。Hewhopaysforland——itisbutfairthatheshouldbeconsideredtheownerofthatland。WehaveahintofthisprincipleinalawofCnut：——\'Hewhohas“defended“landwiththewitnessoftheshireistoenjoyitwithoutquestionduringhislifeandonhisdeathmaygiveorsellittowhomhepleases。\'81*WehaveanotherhintofthisprincipleinastorytoldbyHeming，themonkofWorcester：——inCnut\'stimebutfourdaysofgraceweregiventothelandownerforthepaymentofthegeld；whenthesehadelapsed，anyonewhopaidthegeldmighthavetheland。82*Itisaprinciplewhich，ifitisappliedtothecaseoflordandvillein，willattributetheownershipofthelandtothelordandnottothevillein。
Andthenwewouldask：Whatservicesdothevilleinsrender？
Adeepsilenceanswersus，andaswillhereafterbeshown，therearemanyreasonswhyweshouldnotimporttheinformationgivenusbythemonasticcartularies，evensuchearlycartulariesastheBlackBookofPeterborough，intothedaysoftheConfessor。
Nodoubtthevilleinsusuallydosomelabouruponthelord\'sdemesnelands。Inparticulartheyhelptoploughit。Amanor，wecansee，isgenerallysoarrangedthattheratiobornebythedemesneoxentothedemesnelandwillbesmallerthanthatbornebythevilleins\'oxentothevilleins\'land。Thus，togiveoneexampleoutofahundred，inaSomersetshiremanorthelordhasfourhidesandthreeteams，thevilleinshavetwohidesandthreeteams。83*Butthenthelordgetssomehelpinhisagriculturefromthosewhoareundoubtedlyfreetenants。Theteamsofthefreetenantsareoftencoveredbythesamephrasethatcoverstheteamsofthevilleins。84*Radknightswhoareliberihominesploughandharrowatthelord\'scourt。85*Theveryfewentrieswhichtellusofthelabourofthevilleinsarequiteinsufficienttocondemnthewholeclasstounlimited，oreventoveryheavywork。OnamanorinHerefordshiretherearetwelvebordierswhoworkonedayintheweek。86*OntheenormousmanorofLeominsterthereare238villaniand85bordarii。Thevillaniploughandsowwiththeirownseed140acresoftheirlord\'slandandtheypay11poundsand52pence。87*OnthemanorofMarcle，whichalsoisinHerefordshire，thereare36villaniand10bordariiwith40teams。Thesevillaniploughandsowwiththeirownseed80acresofwheatand71ofoats。88*AtKingston，yetanothermanorinthesamecounty，\'thevillaniwhodweltthereinKingEdward\'sdaycarriedvenisontoHerefordanddidnootherservice，sosaystheshire。89*OnoneWorcestershiremanorofWestminsterAbbey10villeinsand10
bordierswith6teamsplough6acresandsowthemwiththeirownseed；onanother8villeinsand6bordierswith6teamsdothelikeby4acres。90*Thisislightwork。CasuallywearetoldofburgesseslivingatTamworthwhohavetoworkliketheothervilleinsofthemanorofDraytontowhichtheyareattached，91*
andwearetoldofmenonaroyalmanorwhodosuchworksforthekingasthereevemaycommand；92*but，curiouslyenough，itisnotofanyvilleinsbutoftheBishopofWorcester\'sridingmenradmannithatitiswritten\'theydowhateveriscommandedthem\'。93*
Withourthirteenthcenturycartulariesbeforeus，wemighteasilyunderratetheamountofmoneythatwasalreadybeingpaidastherentoflandatthedateoftheConquest。Inseveralcountieswecomeacrosssmallgroupsofcensarii，censores，gablatoreswhopayfortheirlandinmoney，ofcervisariiandmellitariiwhobringbeerandhoney。Rendersinkind，inherrings，eels，salmonarenotuncommon，andsometimestheyare\'appreciated\'，valuedintermsofmoney。Thepannagepigorthegrassswine，whichthevilleinsgiveinreturnformastandherbage，isoftenmentioned。ThroughoutSussexitseemstobethecustomthatthelordshouldhave\'forherbage\'onepigfromeveryvilleinwhohassevenpigs。94*Butmoneywillbetakeninsteadofswine，oxenorfish。95*Thegersuma，thetailla，thetheoreticallyfreegiftsofthetenants，aresumsofmoney。Butoftenenoughthevillanusispayingasubstantialmoneyrent。WehaveseenhowatLeominstervilleinsploughandsow140acresfortheirlordandpayarentofmorethan？1。96*AtLewishaminKenttheAbbotofGandhasamanorvaluedat？0；ofthis？isduetotheprofitsoftheportwhiletwomillswith\'thegafoloftherustics\'bringin？12s。97*Suchentriesasthefollowingarenotuncommon——thereisonevilleinrendering30d。98*——
thereisonevilleinrendering10s99*——46cotariiwithonehiderender30shillingsayear100*——thevilleinsgive13s4dbywayofconsuetudo。101*Nodoubtitwouldbesomewhatraretofindavilleindischargingallhisduesinmoney——thisissuggestedwhenwearetoldhowonthelandofStAugustinoneWadardholdsalargepiece\'deterravillanorum\'andyetrendersnoservicetotheabbotsave30sayear。102*Atleastinoneinstancethevilleinsseemtobeholdingthemanorinfarm，thatistosay，theyarefarmingthedemesnelandandpayingarentinmoneyorinprovender。103*Wedarenotrepresentthestreamofeconomichistoryasflowinguninterruptedlyfromasystemoflabourservicestoasystemofrents。WemustrememberthatintheConqueror\'sreignthelordveryoftenhadnumerousserfswhosewholetimewasgiventothecultivationofhisdemesne。Inthesouth-westerncountieshewilloftenhavetwo，threeormoreserfsforeveryteamthathehasonhisdemesne，and，whilethisisso，wecannotsafelysaythathishusbandryrequiresthatthevilleinsshouldbelabouringonhislandforthreeorfourdaysineveryweek。
Asalastquestionwemayask：WhatwastheEnglishforvillanus？Itisaforeignword，oneofthosewordswhichcameinwiththeConqueror。Surely，wemayargue，theremusthavebeensomeEnglishequivalentforit。Yetwehavethegreatestdifficultyinfindingtheproperterm。TruethatintheQuadripartitusandtheLegesvillanusgenerallyrepresentsceorl；
ceorlwhenitisnotrenderedbyvillanusisleftuntranslatedinsomesuchformascyrliscushomo。ButthenceorlmustbeawiderwordthanthevillanusofDomesdayBook，forithastocoverallthenon-noblefreemen；itmustcomprehendthenumeroussochemanniandliberihominesofnorthernandeasternEngland。
Thisinitselfisnotalittleremarkable；itmakesussuspectthatsomeofthelinesdrawnbyDomesdayBookarebynomeansveryold；theycannotbedrawnbyanyofthosetermsthathavebeencurrentintheAnglo-Saxondoomsorwhichstillarecurrentinthetext-booksthatlawyersarecompiling。Tosupposethatvillanusisequivalenttogeb鷕isimpossible；wehavethebestwarrantforsayingthattheLatinforgeb鷕isnotvillanusbutcolibertus。104*Norcanweholdthatthevillanusisageneat。
InthelastdaysoftheoldEnglishkingdomthegeneat，the\'companion，\'the\'fellow，\'appearsasahorsemanwhoridesonhislord\'serrands；wemustseekhimamongtheradmanniandrachenistresanddrengiofDomesdayBook。105*WeshallventuretheguessthatwhentheNormanclerkswrotedownvillanus，theEnglishjurorshadsaidt鷑esman。Asamatterofetymologythetwowordsanswertoeachotherwellenough；thevillaisthet鷑，andthemenofthevillaarethemenofthet鷑。IntheenlargedLatinversionofthelawsofCnut，knownasInstitutaCnuti，thereisanimportantremark：——tithesaretobepaidbothfromthelandsofthethegnandfromthelandsofthevilleins——\'tamdedominioliberalishominis，idestthegenes，quamdeterravillanorum，idesttuumannescorr。tunmannes。\'106*TheninacollectionofdoomsknownastheNorthumbrianPriests\'LawthereisaclausewhichordersthepaymentofPeter\'spence。Ifaking\'sthegnorlandlordlandricawithholdshispenny，hemustpaytenhalf-marks，halftoChrist，halftotheking；butifat鷑esmanwithholdsit，thenletthelandlordpayitandtakeanoxfromtheman。107*Averyvaluablepassagethisis。Itshowsushowthelordisbecomingresponsiblefortheman\'staxes；ifthetenantwillnotpaythem，thelordmust。Itistheninconnexionwiththisresponsibilityofthelordthatthetermtownsmanmeetsus，and，ifwemistakenot，itisthelord\'sresponsibilityforgeldthatisthechiefagentinthedefinitionoftheclassofvillani。Thepressureoftaxation，civilandecclesiastical，hasbeenformingnewsocialstrata，andanewword，initselfavagueword，ismakingitswayintothevocabularyofthelaw。108*
Theclassofvilleinsmaywellbeheterogeneous。Itmaywellcontainsowethinkmenwho，orwhoseancestors，haveownedthelandunderapoliticalsupremacy，noteasilytobedistinguishedfromlandlordship，thatbelongstotheking；and，ontheotherhand，itmaywellcontainthosewhohaveneverinthemselvesortheirpredecessorsbeenotherthanthetenantsofanotherman\'ssoil。InsomecountiesontheWelshmarchtherearegroupsofhospiteswhoinfactortheoryarecolonistswhomthelordhasinvitedontohisland；109*butthisword，verycommoninFrance，isnotcommoninEngland。Ourrecordisnotconcernedtodescribethenatureortheoriginofthevillein\'stenure；itisinquestofgeldandofthepersonswhooughttobechargedwithgeld，andsoitmattersnotwhetherthelordhasletlandtothevilleinorhasacquiredrightsoverlandofwhichthevilleinwasoncetheowner。Thereforewelaydownnobroadprincipleabouttherightsofthevillein，butwehavesuggestedthattakeninthemassthevillanioftheConfessor\'sreignwerefarmore\'law-worthy\'thanwerethevillaniofthethirteenthcentury。Wecannottreateitherthelegalortheeconomichistoryofourpeasantryasacontinuouswhole；itisdividedintotwopartsbytheredthreadoftheNormanConquest。Thatisacatastrophe。
Williammightdohisbesttomakeitaslittleofacatastropheaswaspossible，toinsistthateachFrenchlordshouldhavepreciselythesamerightsthathadbeenenjoyedbyhisEnglishantecessor；itmayevenbethatheendeavouredtoassuretothosewhowerebecomingvillanitherightsthattheyhadenjoyedunderKingEdward。110*Suchatask，ifattempted，wasimpossible。WehearindeedthattheEnglish\'redeemedtheirlands，\'butprobablythisrefersonlytothoseEnglishlords，thosethegnsorthelike，whowerefortunateenoughtofindthataransomwouldbeaccepted。111*Wehavenowarrantforthinkingthatthepeasants，thecommon\'townsmen，\'obtainedfromthekinganycovenantedmercies。Theywerehandedovertonewlords，whowereveryfreeinfact，ifnotintheory，togetoutofthemallthatcouldbegotwithoutgrosscruelty。
Wearenotlefttospeculateaboutthismatter。Inafterdaysthosewhowerelikelytoholdatruetradition，thegreatfinancierofthetwelfth，thegreatlawyerofthethirteenthcentury，believedthattherehadbeenacatastrophe。AsaresultoftheConquest，thepeasants，atalleventssomeofthepeasants，hadfallenfromtheirfreeestate；freemen，holdingfreely，theyhadbeencompelledtodounfreeservices。112*Butifweneednotrelyuponspeculation，neitherneedwerelyupontradition。DomesdayBookisfullofevidencethatthetillersofthesoilarebeingdepressed。
Herewemayreadofafreemanwithhalfahidewhohasnowbeenmadeoneofthevilleins，113*thereoftheholderofasmallmanorwhonowcultivatesitasthefarmerofaFrenchlordgraviteretmiserabiliter，114*andthereofasokemanwhohaslosthislandfornotpayinggeld，thoughnonewasdue；115*
whilethegreatRichardofTonbridgehascondescendedtoabstractavirgatefromavilleinoravilleinfromavirgate。116*But，again，itisnotonafewcasesinwhichourrecordstatesthatsomemanhassufferedaninjusticethatwewouldrely。Ratherwenoticewhatittreatsasaquitecommonevent。Freemenarebeing\'addedto\'manorstowhichtheydidnotbelong。ThusinSuffolkanumberoffreemenhavebeenaddedtothemanorofMontfort；theypayno\'custom\'toitbeforetheConquest，butnowtheypay？5；
AElfricwhowasreeveunderRogerBigotsetthemthiscustom。117*Hardbythemweremenwhousedtopay20shillings，butthissameAElfricraisedtheirrentto100shillings。118*
\'Afreemanheldthislandandcouldsellit，butWaleranfatherofJohnhasaddedhimtothismanor\'：119*——Entriesofthiskindarecommon。Theutmostrentsarebeingexactedfromthefarmers：——thismanorwasletforthreeyearsatarentof？2
andayearlygiftofanounceofgold，butallthefarmerswhotookitwereruined120*——thatmanorwasletfor？15s。butthemenweretherebyruinedandnowitisvaluedatonly45s。121*AboutthesemattersFrenchandEnglishcannotagree：——
thismanorrenders？0byweight，buttheEnglishvalueitatonly？0bytale122*——theEnglishfixthevalueat？0，buttheFrenchat？00123*——FrenchmenandEnglishmenagreethatitisworth？0，butRichardletittoanEnglishmanfor？0，whotherebylost？0ayear，attheveryleast。124*\'Itcannotpay，\'\'itcanhardlypay，\'\'itcouldnotstand\'therent，sucharethephrasesthatwehear。Ifthelordgetsthemostoutofthefarmertowhomhehasleasedthemanor，wemaybesurethatthefarmerismakingthemostoutofthevilleins。
ButthemostconvincingproofofthedepressionofthepeasantrycomestousfromCambridgeshire。Theruralpopulationofthatcountyasitexistedin1086hasbeenclassifiedthus：125*——
sochemanni213
villani1902
bordarii1428
cotarii736
servi548
ButwealsolearnthattheCambridgeshireoftheConfessor\'sdayhadcontainedattheveryleast900insteadof200sokemen。126*
Thisisanenormousandasignificantchange。Letuslookatasinglevillage。InMeldreththereisamanor；itisnowamanorofthemostordinarykind；itisratedat3hidesand1virgate，butcontains5team-lands；indemesnearehalfahideandoneteam，and15bordariiand3cotariihave4teams，andthereisoneservus。ButbeforetheConquestthislandwasheldby15
sokemen；10ofthemwereunderthesokeoftheAbbeyofElyandheld2hidesandhalfavirgate；theother5held1hideandhalfavirgateandwerethemenofEarlAElfgar。127*Whathasbecomeofthesefifteensokemen？Theyarenowrepresentedbyfifteenbordiersandfivecottiers；andthedemesnelandofthemanorisanewthing。Thesokemenhavefallen，andtheirfallhasbroughtwithittheconsolidationofmanorialhusbandryandseignorialpower。AtOrwellEarlRogerhasnowasmallestate；athirdofitisindemesne，whiletheresidueisheldby2villeinsand3
bordiers，andthereisaserfthere。Thislandhadbelongedtosixsokemen，andthosesixhadbeenundernolessthanfivedifferentlords；twobelongedtoEdiththeFair，onetoArchbishopStigand，onetoRobertWimarc\'sson，onetotheking，andonetoEarlAelfgar。128*Displacementssuchasthiswemayseeinvillageaftervillage。NoonecanreadthesurveyofCambridgeshirewithoutseeingthatthefreersortsofthepeasantryhavebeenthrustout，orratherthrustdown。
EvidencesocogentasthisweshallhardlyfindinanypartoftherecordsavethatwhichrelatestoCambridgeshireandBedfordshire。Butgreatmovementsofthekindthatweareexaminingwillhardlyconfinethemselveswithintheboundariesofacounty。Alittlevariationintheformulawhichtellsuswhoheldthelandin1066mayhidefromusthetruestateofthecase。Wecannotexpectthatmenwillbeveryaccurateinstatingthelegalrelationshipsthatexistedtwentyyearsago。SincethedaywhenKingEdwardwasaliveanddeadmanythingshavehappened，manynewwordsandnewformsofthoughthavebecomefamiliar。Buttakingtheverdictsaswefindthem，thereisstillnolackofevidence。InEssexwemayseetheliberihominesdisappearing。129*Butweneednotlookonlytotheeasterncounties。AtBromley，inSurrey，BishopOdohasamanorof32
hides，4ofwhichhadbelongedto\'freemen\'whocouldgowheretheypleased，butnowthereareonlyvilleins，cottiers，andserfs。130*WeturnthepageandfindOdoholding10hideswhichhadbelongedto\'thealodiariesofthevill。\'131*InKentHughdePortisholdinglandthatwasheldby6freemenwhocouldgowhithertheywould；therearenow6villeinsand14bordiersthere，withoneteambetweenthem。132*StudentsofDomesdayweretooapttotreattheantecessoresoftheNormanlordsasbeinginallcaseslordsofmanors。Lordsofmanors，orratherholdersofmanors，theyoftenwere，butasweshallseemorefullyhereafter，whenweareexaminingthetermmanerium，suchphrasesarelikelytodeceiveus。Oftenenoughtheywereverysmallpeoplewithverylittleland。ForexamplethesesixfreemenwhomHughdePortrepresentshadonlytwoandahalfteam-lands。WepassbyafewpagesandfindHughdeMontfortwithaholdingwhichcomprisesbutoneteam-landandahalf；hehas4
villeinsand2bordiersthere。Hisantecessoreswerethreefreemen，whocouldgowhithertheywould。133*Theyhadneedforbut12oxen；theyhadnomorelandthantheycouldeasilytill，atalleventswiththehelpoftwoorthreecottagesorslaves。Toallappearancetheywerenobetterthanpeasants。TheyortheirsonsmaystillbetillingthelandasHugh\'svilleins。Whenwelookforsuchinstancesweveryeasilyfindthem。Thecaseisnotalteredbythefactthattheterm\'manor\'isgiventotheholdingsoftheseantecessores。InSussexanunder-tenantofEarlRogerhasanestatewithfourvilleinsuponit。Hisantecessoresweretwofreemenwhoheldthelandastwomanors。Andhowmuchlandwastheretobedividedbetweenthetwo？Therewasoneteam-land。Suchholdersofmaneriaweretillersofthesoil，peasants，atbestyeomen。134*Iftheywereofthegnlyrank，thisagaindoesnotalterthecase。WheninthesurveyofDorsetwereadhowfourthegnsheldtwoteam-lands，howsixthegnsheldtwoteam-lands，eightthegnstwoteam-lands，ninethegnsfourteam-lands，eleventhegnsfourteam-lands，135*wecannotofcoursebecertainthateachofthesegroupsofco-tenantshadbutoneholding；butthegnlyrankisinherited，andifathegnwillhavenineortensonstherewillsoonbetillersofthesoilwiththewergildoftwelvehundredshillings。Nowifthesethingsarebeingdoneinthemiddlingstrataofsociety，ifthesokemenarebeingsuppressedordepressedinCambridgeshire，thealodiariesinSussex，whatislikelytobethefateofthepoor？Theywillhavetotilltheirlord\'sdemesnegraviteretmiserabiliter。Hecanaffordtodispensewithserfs，forhehasvilleins。
Alastargumentmustbeadded。Whatweseeinthethirteenthcenturyoftheancientdemesneofthecrown136*mightleadustoexpectthatinDomesdayBook\'themanorsofStEdward\'wouldstandoutinboldrelief。Insteadofapopulationmainlyconsistingofvilleins，shallwenotfinduponthemlargenumbersofsokemen，theancestersofthemenwhoinafterdayswillbeprotectedbythelittlewritofrightandtheMonstraverunt？
Nothingofthekind。Theroyalmanordiffersinnosuchmodeasthisfromanyothermanor。Ifitliesinacountyinwhichothermanorshavesokemen，thenitmayormaynothavesokemen。Ifitliesinacountyinwhichothermanorshavenosokemen，itwillhavenone。Cambridgeshireisacountyinwhichtherearesome，andhavebeenmany，sokemen；thereishardlyasokemanupontheancientdemesne。InafterdaysthemenofChesterton，forexample，willhaveallthepeculiarrightsattributedbylawyerstothesokemenofStEdward。ButStEdward，ifwetrustDomesdayBook，hadneverasokemanthere；hehadtwovilleinsandanumberofbordiersandcottiers。137*Itseemsfairlyclearthatfromanearlytime，ifnotfromthefirstdaysoftheConquestonwards，thekingwasthebestoflandlords。Thetenantsofthosemanorsthatwereconceivedasannexedtothecrown，thosetenantsoneandall，savetheclassofslaveswhichwasdisappearing，gotabetter，amoreregularjusticethanthatwhichthevilleinsofotherlordscouldhopefor。Itwastheking\'sjustice，andtherefore——fortheking\'spublicandprivatecapacitieswerehardlytobedistinguished——itwaspublicjustice，andsobecameformaljustice，definedbywrits，administeredinthelastresortbythehighestcourt，theablestlawyers。Andsosokemendisappearfromprivatemanors。Someofthemastenantsinfreesocagemaymaintaintheirposition；manyfalldownintotheclassoftenantsinvilleinage。Ontheancientdemesnethesokemenmultiply；theyappearwhereDomesdayknewthemnot；forthosewhoareprotectedbyroyaljusticecanhardlynowthatvilleinageimpliesaprecarioustenurebecalledvilleins，theymustbe\'villeinsokemen\'attheleast。Whetherornowetrustthetraditionwhichascribes。totheConqueroralawinfavourofthetillersofthesoil，wecanhardlydoubtthatthevillaniandbordariiwhomDomesdayBookshowsusontheroyalmanorsaretreatedashavinglegalrightsintheirholdings。Andifthisbetrueofthem，itshouldbetrueoftheirpeersuponothermanors。
Yes，itshouldbetrue；themanorialcourtsthatarearisingshoulddoimpartialjusticeevenbetweenlordandvilleins；butwhoistomakeittrue？
NOTES：
1。D。B。i。38，Coseham：\'8bursi。coliberti。\'Ib。38bDene：
\'etcoliberti[velburesinterlined]。\'
2。D。B。i。65，Wintreburne。
3。D。B。i。75，BridetoneetBere。
4。D。B。i。239b，Etone。
5。Gu閞ard，CartulairedeL\'AbbayedeS。P鑢edeChartres，vol。
i。p。xlii。
6。ThepositionofthecolibertiisdiscussedbyGu閞ard，loc。
citandbyLamprecht，GeschichtedesFranz鰏ischenWirthschaftslebensinSchmoller\'sForschungen，Bdi。，p。81。
Gu閞ardsays，\'Lescolibertspeuventseplacer？peupr鑣
indiff閞emmentouaudernierdeshommeslibres，ou？lat阾edeshommesengag閟dansdesliensdelaservitudei\'
7。Schmid。App。iii。c。4。
8。Rectitudines，c。3。
9。OccasionallythecolibertiofD。B。areputbeforeusaspayingrentsinmoneyorinkind。ThusD。B。i。38，Hants：\'InCosehamsunt4hidaequaepertinenthuicmanerioubiT。R。E。
erant8bursi。coliberticum4carucisreddentes50sol。8den。
minus。\'D。B。i。179b。Heref。：\'Villanidantdeconsuetudine13
sol。et4den。et[sex]colibertireddunt3sextariosfrumentietordeiet2ovesetdimidiamcumagniset2den。etunumobolum。\'
D。B。i。165：\'etinGlouucestre1burgensisreddens5den。et2
colibertireddentes34den。\'InachartercomingfromBishopDenewulfK。1079wereadofthreewite-the體menwhowereboor-bornandthreewhowerethe體-born。
10。Ellis，Introduction，ii。511-14。
11。ForexamplesseeD。B。iv。211andthefollowingpages。
12。Leg。Hen。81，sect。3\'Quidamvillaniquisunteiusmodileierwitametblodwitamethuiusmodiminoraforisfactaemeruntadominissuis，velquomodomerueruntdesuisetinsuos，quorumletgefothveloverseunessaest30den。；cothseti15den。；servi6
den。\'
13。D。B。i。71，Haseberie：\'5villaniet13coscezet2
cotarii。\'Ibid80b：Chinestanestone：\'18villaniet14coscezet4cotarii。\'
14。WorcesterRegister，59bSedgebarrow：fourcotmanni，eachofwhompays20d。orworksonedayaweekandtwoinautumn；twocottarii，eachwhompays12d。orworksonedayaweek。Ibid。69bShipston：twocotmanni，eachofwhompays3s。orworkslikeavirgater；twocottarii，eachofwhompays13d。Ibid。76aCropthorn：twocotmanni，eachofwhompays2s。orworkslikeacottarius；twocottarii，eachofwhompays18d。orworksonedayaweek。
15。Vinogradoff，Villainage，149，givesafewinstancesofitsoccurrence；butitseemstobeveryrare。
16。D。B。i。127b，Fuleham：\'Ibi5villaniquisque1hidam。\'
Thereareagoodmanyotherinstances。
17。D。B。i。130，Hamtone；\'et4bordariiquisquededimidiavirga。\'
18。D。B。i。127，Herges：\'et2cotariide13acris。\'
19。D。B。i。127b，Fuleham：\'et22cotariidedimidiahidaet8
cotariidesuishortis。\'
20。D。B。ii。75b：\'et5bordariisuperaquamquinontenentterram。\'
21。D。B。i。163b，Turneberie：\'et42villaniet18radchenistrecum21caruciset23bordariiet15serviet4coliberti。\'Ibid164，Hechanestede：\'et5villaniet8bordariicum6carucis；ibi6servi。\'
22。D。B。iv。215-223；onp。223therearetwovillaniwithoneox。
23。D。B。i。164，Tedeneham：\'Ibierant38villanihabentes38
carucas。\'Ibid。164b，Nortune，\'15villanicum15carucis；
Stanwelle，5villanicum5carucis。\'
24。Malden，DomesdaySurveyofSurreyDomesdayStudies，ii。
469，saysthatinSurrey\'bordariiandcotariionlyoccuroncetogetheruponthesamemanor，andveryseldominthesamehundred……Therearethreehundreds，Godalming，WallingtonandElmbridge，wherethecotariiarenearlyuniversaltotheexclusionofbordarii。Intheothersthebordariiarenearlyorquiteuniversal，totheexclusionofthecotarii。\'
25。Thorpe，Diplomatarium，623，KingEadwigdeclaresthatacertainchurchwardofExeteris\'freeandfare-worth。
26。Hist。Eng。Law，i，541ff。
27。Hist。Eng。Law，i，354-5。
28。Liebermann，InstitutaCnuti，Transact。Roy。Hist。Soc。vii。
93。
29。Leg。Will。Conq。1。8：\'Laweredelthein20lib。inMerchenelahe，25lib。inWestsexenelahe。Laweredelvilain100
sol。enMerchenelaheeensementenWestsexene。\'Leg。Henr。70，1：
\'InWestsexaquaecaputregniestetlegum，twyhindi，i。e。
villagi，weraest4lib。；twelfhindi，i。e。thaigi，25lib。\'Ibid。
76，section2：\'Omnisautemweraliberorumestautservorum……
liberialiitwyhindi，aliisyxhindi，aliitwelfhindi\'；section6，twihindus=cyrliscus=villanus。Astothe100shillingsinthefirstofthesepassages，seeSchmid，p。676。Thereissomeotherevidencethattheequation，1Normanshilling=2Englishshillings，wasoccasionallytreatedascorrectenough。Astothesix-hyndeman，seeSchmid，p。653；wemaydoubtwhetherheexistedintheeleventhcentury，butaccordingtotheInstitutaCnutitheradchenistresofthewestmayhavebeensix-hynde。WemustgotdrawfromAlfred\'streatywiththeDagesSchmid，p。
107theinferencethatthenormalceorlwasseatedongafol-land。Thisinternationalinstrumentissettlinganexceptionallyhightariffforthemaintenanceofthepeace。Everyman，whateverhisrank，istoenjoythehandsomewergildof8
half-marksofpuregold，excepttheDanishlysingandtheEnglisheeorlwhoisseatedongafol-land；thesearetohavebutthecommonwerof200shillings。TheparallelpassageinAEthelred\'streatySchmid，p。207sets？0oneveryfreemanifheiskilledbyamanoftheotherrace。SeeSchmid，p。676。
30。Ine，55：asheepwithalambuntilafortnightafterEasterisworth1shilling。AEethelstan，vi。6：ahorse120pence，anox30pence，acow20，asheep1shilling5pence。Ibid。8，sect。
5：anox30pence。Schmid，App。1。c。7：ahorse30shillings，amare20shillings，anox30pence，acow24pence，aswine8
pence，asheep1shilling，agoat2pence，amani。e。aslave1
pound。Schmid，App。iii。c。9：asheepor3pence。D。B。i。117
b。：anoxor30pence。D。B。i。26：TollsatLewes；foramag4
pence，anoxahalfpenny。Thispreservestheequationthatwehavealreadyseen，namely，1slave=8oxen。Thusthefullteamisworthonepound。Onthetwelfth-centuryPipeRollstheoxoftencosts3shillings=36penceorevenmore。
31。InLeg。Will。Conq。1。16，wehearoftheforisfacturaeprobablythe\'insultfines\'duetoarchbishops，bishops，counts，baronsandsokemen；thebaronhas10shillings，thesokeman40pence。Inthesamedocument，e。20，section2，wereadofthereliefsofcounts，barons，vavassorsandvilleins。Leg。
Edw。Conf。12，section4，speaksofthemanb髏dueintheDanelaw。onthedeathofavillanusorasocheman12oresarepaid，onthedeathofaliberhomo3marks。
32。D。B。i。167b，Heile：\'ibierant12serviquosWillelmusliberosfecit。\'
33。D。B。i263：\'Siquisliberhomofacitoperaindieferiatoindeepiscopushabet8solidos。Deservoautemvelancillaferiatumdieminfringente，habetepiscopus4solidos。\'CompareCnut，ii。45。
34。D。B。i。86：\'HuicmanerioreddebaturT。R。E。deCrucheperannumconsuetudo，hocest6ovescumagnistotidem，etquisqueliberhomoi。blomamferri。\'SouthPerrotthadbelongedtotheConfessor，CrewkernetoEdith，probably\'therichandfair。\'ForthedescriptionofCrucheseeD。B。i。86b。Astothe\'bloom\'ofironseeEllis，Introduction，i。136。
35。D。B。i。92。Seealsop。87b，theaccontofSeveberge。
36。D。B。ii。145。
37。D。B。ii。I：\'Inhocmanerioerattunctemporisquidamliberhomodedimidiahidaquimodoeffectusestunusdevillanis。\'
38。ThusD。B。i。127，Mid。：\'interfrancosetvillanos45
carucae\'；Ibid。70，Wilts：\'4villaniet3bordariietunusfracuscum2carucis\'；Ibid。241，Warw。：\'Ibisunt3franconeshominescum4villaniset3bordariis。\'Sometimesfrancusmaybeanequivalentforfrancigena；e。g。i。254b，whereinoneentrywehaveunusfrancigenaandinthenextunusfrancushomo。ButanEnglishmanmaybefrancus；ii。54b“accepit15acrasdeunofrancoteignoetmisitcumterrasua。\'However，itisnotaninsignificantfactthattheverynameofFrenchmanfrancigena
musthavesuggestedfreebirth。
39。EorexamplesseethesurveysofWarwick，StaffordandShropshire。
40。D。B。ii。260：\'et7hominesquipossentvendereterramsuamsieampriusobtulissentdominosuo。\'
41。D。B。ii。278b：\'sivellentrecederedaretquisqe2
solidos。\'Ibid。207：\'etpossentrecederesidarent2solidos。\'
42。D。B。ii。435：\'EtsuperVlnohthabuitcommendationemantecessorR。Malet，testehundredo，etnonpotuitvenderenecdaredeeoterramsuam。\'Ibid。397：\'viderunteumiurarequodnonpoteratdare[vel]vendereterramsuamabantecessoreRicardi。\'
43。D。B。i。145：\'IocmaneriumtenuitAluuinushomoEstan，nonpotuitdarenecvedereextraBrichellemaneriumEstani。\'
44。D。B。i。133：\'HancterramtenuitAluricBlac2hidasdeAbbateWestmonasterii。T。R。E。：nonpoteratseparateabaecclesia\'
45。DB。ii。216b：\'Itaestinmonasterioquodnecvenderenecforisfacerepotestextraecclesia。\'
46。Forexample，D。B。i。201：\'terramsuamvenderepotuerunt，socaveroremansitAbbati。\'D。B。ii，78：\'etpoterantvendereterramsetsocaetsacaremanebatantecessoriAlberici。\'Ibid。
ii。92b：\'unussochemannusfuitinhacterrade15acrisquaspoteratvendere，setsocaiacebatinWarleiaterraS。Pauli。\'
47。Buttheconsuetudo，rentorthelike，may\'remain\'：D。B。ii。
181b：\'etpossentvendereterramsuamsetconsuetudoremanebatinmanerio。\'Andsothecommendatiomay\'remain\'；ii。357b：\'Hipoterantdareetvendereterram，setsacaetsocaetcommendatioremanebantSancto[Eadmundo]。\'
48。Forexample，D。B。i。201：\'HominesAbbatisdeElyfueruntet4terramsuamvenderepotuerunt，socaveroremansitAbbati，etquartus1virgametdimidiamhabuitetrecederenonpoutuit。\'SeetheimportantevidenceproducedbyRound，FeudalEngland，24，astotheequivalenceofthesephrases。
49。Oneofthecommonesttermsisrecedere——\'potuitrecedere\'——
\'nonpotuitrecedere\'。i。41，\'nonpotuitcumterrarecedereadaliumdominum\'；i。56b，\'toliberihominesT。R。E。tenebant12hidasetdimidiamdeterraeiusdemmaneriisedinderecederenonpoterant\'；ii。19b，\'nonpoterantrecedereaterrasinelicentiaAbbatis\'；ii。57b，\'nonpoterantrecedereabillomanerio\'；ii66，\'nonpoterantremovereabillomanerio\'；ii。41，\'nonpoterantrecedereasocaWisgari\'；ii。41b，\'necpoterantabiresineiussudomini\'；i。66b，\'quitenuitT。R。E。nonpoteratabaecclesiadiverti[separari\']；ii。116，\'unus[burgensis]eratitadominicusutnonpossetrecederenechomagiurnfaceresinelicentia[Stigandi]\'；ii。119，\'deistishominibuserant36itadominiceRegisEdwardiutnonpssentessehominescuiuslibetsedsempertamenconsuetudoregisremanebatpreterherigete。\'Aremarkableformis，ii。57b，\'nonpotuitistamterrammittereinaliquoloconisiinabbatia。\'Then\'potuitirequovoluit，\'\'nonpotuitirequolibet\'arecommonenough。
50。Ine，c。39：Hewholeaveshislordwithoutpermissionpayssixtyshillingstohislord。
51。Forexample，D。B。i。41：\'Trestainitenueruntdeepiscopoetnonpotueruntirequolibet。\'
52。D。B。i。35b，Tornecrosta。
53。D。B。i。212b，Stanford。
54。D。B。i。249b：\'Trestainitenueruntetliberihominesfuerunt\'；256，\'Ipsitainiliberierant\'；259b，\'Quatuortainitenueruntanteeumetliberifuerunt。\'
55。Chron。Abingd。i。490：\'Namquidamdives，Turkillusnomine，subHaroldicomitistestimonioetconsultu，desecumsuaterraquaeKingestundicitur，ecclesiaeAbbendonensietabbatiOrdricohomagiumfecit；licitumquippeliberocuique，illointempore，sicagereerat。\'
56。D。B。i。180b：\'etpoterantirecumterraquovolebant，ethabebantsubse4milites，italiberosutipsierant。\'
57。D。B。ii。59。
58。D。B。i。172：\'siitaliberhomoestuthabeatsocamsuametsacametcumterrasuapossitirequovoluerit。\'
59。D。B。i。84b。
60。D。B。ii。213：\'HancterramcalumpniaturesseliberamVlchitelhomoHermeri，quocunquemodoiudicetur，velbelloveliudicio，etaliusestpraestoprobareeomodoquodiacuitadecclesiam[S。Adeldredae]diequorexEdwardusobiit。SettotushundretustestatureamfuisseT。R。E。adS。Adeldredam。\'
61。SeeinparticularthesurveyofGloucestershire；D。B。i。165
b：\'Hocmaneriumquietumestageldoetabomniforensiservitiopraeteraecclesiae\'；Ibid。\'Haecterraliberafuitetquietaabomnigeldoetregaliservitio\'。170，\'Unahidaetdimidialiberaageldo。\'Whenafterreadingthesepassage\'swecomeuponthefollowing167b，\'IsdemW。tenetTatinton：UlgartenuitderegeEdwardo：haecterraliberaest，\'andwhenweobservethatthelandisnothidated，weshallprobablyinferthat\'Thislandisfree\'means\'Thislandisexemptfromgeld，and[perhaps]fromallotherroyalservice。\'
62。Dialogus，i。c。11；ii。c。14。
63。Dialogus，i。c。10。
64。Will。Conq。i。30，31：\'Silesseignuragesnefacentaltrigainursveniralourterre，lajustiselefacet。\'TheLatinversionisridiculous：\'Sidominiterrarumnonprocurentidoneoscultoresadterrassuascolendas，iustitiariihocfaciant。\'Thetranslatorseemstohavebeenpuzzledbythewordaltriorautrui。
65。Ibid。29。
66。Schmid，App。v。；vii。，2，9-11；PseudolegesCanuti，60-1
Schmid，p。431。
67。D。B。iv。497。
68。D。B。i。44b：\'IstamterramcalumpniaturWillelmusdeChernet，dicenspertinereadmaneriumdeCernefordfeudumHugonisdePortperhereditatemsuiantecessorisetdehocsuumtestimoniumadduxitdemelioribusetantiquishominibustotiuscomitatusethundredi；etPicotcontraduxitsuumtestimoniumdevillanisetviliplebeetdeprepositis，quivoluntdefenderepersacramentumvedeiiudicium，quodillequitenuitterramliberhomofuitetpotuitirecumterrasuaquovoluit。SedtestesWillelminoluntacciperelegemnisiregisEdwardiusquedumdiffiniaturperregem。\'ItseemspossiblethatWilliam\'switnesseswishedtoinsistontheancientrulethattheoathofonethegnwouldcountervailtheoathsofsixceorls。ThiswastheoldEnglishlawlexEdwardionwhichtheyrelied。
69。D。B。ii。393：\'et5villanideeodemmaneriotestantureietofferuntlegemqualemquisiudicaverit；setdimidiumhundretdeGepeswiztestanturquodhociacebatadecclesiamT。R。E。etWisgarustenebatetoffertderationari。\'
70。Schmid，App。vi。；Leg。Hen。64sect。2：\'thainiiusiurandumcontravaletiusiurandumsexvillanorum。\'
71。Leg。Hen。29，sect。1。
72。HistEng。Law，i。344。
73。Dialogus，i。c。11
74。D。B。i。67b；\'Deterravillanorumdeditabbatissaunimiliti3hidasetdimidiam。\'Ibid。89：\'tenetJohannesdeepiscopo2hidasdeterravillanorum。\'Ibid。i。169：\'unusfrancigenatenetterramuniusvillani。\'Ibid。164：\'InSauerna11
piscariaeindominioet42piscariaevillanorum。\'Ibid。230：
\'Silvadominica1leu。long。etdim。leu。lat。Silvavillanorum4
quarent。long。et3quarent。lat。\'Ibid。7b：\'5molinivillanorum。\'Wehavenotseendominicumusedasasubstantive；
butintheExon。D。B。iv。75wehavedominicatusRegis，fortheking\'sdemesne。Thereisalreadyaslightambiguityaboutthetermdominium。Wemaysaythatachurchhasamanorindominio，meaningtherebythatthemanorasawholeisheldbythechurchitselfandisnotheldofitbyanytenant；andthenwemaygoontosaythatonlyonehalfofthelandcomprisedinthismanorisheldbythechurchindominio。Cf。Hist。Eng。Law，ii。126。
75。Forexample，D。B。i。159：\'Nuncindominio3carucaeet6
servi，et26villanicum3bordariiset15liberihomineshabent30carucas。\'Ibid。165：\'Indominio2carucaeet9villaniet6
bordariietpresbyteretunusrachenistrecum10carucis。\'Ibid。
258b：\'et3villaniet2bordariiet2francigenaecum2
carucis。\'Butsuchentriesarecommonenough。
76。Round，DomesdayStudies，i。97。
77。D。B。i。28：\'IpseWillelmusdeBraiosetenetWasingetune……
DehacterratenetGislebertusdim。hidam，RadulfusIhidam，Willelmus3virgas，Leuuinusdim。hidamquipotuitrecederecumterrasuaetdeditgeldumdominosuoetdominussuusnichildedit。\'
78。B。i。163，b。
79。D。B。i。121：\'OmnessuperiusdescriptasterrastenebantT。
R。E。S。Petrocus；huiussanctiterraenunquamreddideruntgeldumnisiipsiaecclesiae。\'D。B。iv。187：\'TerraeS。Petrochinunquamreddideruntgildumhisisancto。\'
80。D。B。ii。372：\'Etquandoinhundretosolvituradgeldum1
libratuncindeexeunt60denariiadvictummonachorum。\'
81。Cnut，ii。79：\'Andse