NOTES：
1。D。B。ii。109b。：\'HundretdeGrenehou14letis。\'1b。212b。
\'HundretetDim。deClakelosade10leitis。\'Round，FeudalEngland，101。
2。SomeofthemarementionedbyEllis，Introduction，i。34-9。
3。D。B。i。184b：\'Haecterranongeldatnecconsuetudinemdatnecinaliquohundredoiacet\'：i。157\'Haecterranunquamgeldavitnecalicuihundredopertinetnecpertinuit\'：i。357b\'HaeduaecarucataenonsiuntinnumeroalicuiushundredinequehabentparesinLincolescyra。\'
4。D。B。i。207b：\'JacetinBedefordscirasetgeldumdatinHuntedonscire\'；i。61b\'JacetetappreciataestinGratentunquodestinOxenefordscireettamendatscotuminBerchescire\'；
i。132b，themanorofWeston\'liesin，HitchinwhichisinHertfordshirc，butitswara\'liesin\'Bedfordshire，i。e。itpaysgeld，it\'defendsitself\'inthelattercounty；i。189b，thewaraofacertainhide\'liesin\'HinxtonwhichisinCambridgeshire，butthelandbelongstothemanorofChesterfordandthereforeisvaluedinEssex。D。B。i。178：fivehides\'geldandplead\'inWorcestershire，butpaytheirfarminHerefordshire。
5。D。B。i。157b：\'Has[terrasinOxenefordscire]coniunxitterraesuaeinGlowecestrescire\'；i。209b\'forismisitdehundredoubisedefendebat，T。R。E。\'；i。50\'etmisitforascomitatumetmisitinWiltesire。\'SeealsoEllis，i。36。
6。SeeRound，FeudalEngland，p。118。MrRoundseemstothinkthatthecommissionersmadeacircuitthroughthehundreds。I
doubttheydidmorethantheirsuccessorsthejusticesineyrewerewonttodo，thatis，theyheldintheshire-townamootwhichwasattendedby1themagnatesoftheshirewhospokefortheshire，2ajuryfromeveryhundred，3adeputationofvillanifromeverytownship。SeetheYorkshireandLincolnshireClamoresi。375wherewemayfindsuccessiveentriesbeginningwithaScyratestatur，bWestredingtestatur，cTestaturwapentac。Strikinglysimilarentriesarefoundontheeyrerolls。
AsSirF。PollockEng。Hist。Rev。xi。213remarks，itismisleadingtospeakoftheDomesday\'survey\'；Domesdayinquestwouldbebetter。
7。SeeRound，FeudalEngland，p。44。
8。Inquis。Com。Cantab。60。
9。SeethetableinRound，FeudalEngland，p。50。IhadalreadyselectedthisbeautifulspecimenbeforeMrRound\'sbookappeared。
Hehasgivenseveralothersthatarequiteasneat。
10。Ofcoursewetakenoaccountofurbanparishes。
11。Eyton\'slaboriousstudieshavemadethisplainasregardssomecountieswidelyremovedfromeachother；still，e。g。inhisbookOnSomerset，hehasnowandagaintonotethatnameswhichappearinD。B。areobsolete。
12。Inq。Com。Cant。60-1。
13。D。B。i。31。
14。D。B。i。41。Weshallreturntothismatterhereafter。
15。AgoodmanycaseswillbefoundinEssexandSuffolk。
16。Inq。Com。Cantab。51，53。
17。Ibid。47。
18。Ibid。29。
19。Maitland，SurnamesofEnglishVillages，ArchaeologicalReview，iv。233。
20。Wedonotmeantoimplythattherewerenotwidestretchesofwastelandwhichwereregardedasbeing\'extra-villar，\'orcommontoseveralvills。
21。Hist。Eng。Law，i。547。
22。Thisofcoursewouldnotbetrueofcasesinwhichthelandsofvariousvillageswereintermixedinonelargetractofcommonfield。Astothese\'discretevills，\'seeHist。Eng。Law，i。549。
23。Thisname-givingclusterwillusuallycontaintheparishchurchandsowillenjoyacertainpre-eminence。Butwearetospeakofatimewhenparishchurcheswerenovelties。
24。SeeMeitzen，SiedelungundAgrarwesenderGermanen，especiallyii，119ff。
25。Whenthehamletsbearnameswithsuchancientsuffixesas-ton，-ham，-by，-worth，-wick，-thorpe，thisofcourseisinfavouroftheirantiquity。Ontheotherhand，iftheyareknownmerelybyfamilynamessuchasStyles\'s，Nokes\'s，Johnson\'sorthelike，this，thoughnotconclusiveevidenceof，iscompatiblewith，theirmodernity。MeitzenthinksthatinKentandalongthesouthernshoretheGermaninvadersfoundedbutfewvillages。Themapdoesnotconvincemethatthisinferenceiscorrect。
26。Whenmorethanfive-and-twentyteam-landsorthereaboutsareascribedtoasingleplace，weshallgenerallyfindreasontobelievethatwhatisbeingdescribedisnotasinglevill。Seeabove，p。36。
27。Inq。Com。Cant。51fol。Inafewcasesourfigureswillinvolveasmallelementofconjecture。
28。D。B。i。248。Wehavetriedtoavoidvillsinwhichitiscertainorprobablethatsomeothertenantinchiefhadanestate。
29。D。B。i。88。Wehavetriedtomakesurethatnotenantinchiefsavethebishophadlandinanyofthesevills，andthiswethinkfairlycertain，exceptasregardsHarptreeandNorton。
TherearenowtwoHarptrees，EastandWest，andfourormoreNortons。
30。WetakethefiguresfromEllis，Introduction，ii。417ff。
31。Verypossiblythisfigureistoolow。Thereisreasontothinkthatsomethefreemenandsokemenofthesecountiesgetcountedtwiceorthriceoverbecausetheyholdlandunderseveraldifferentlords。OntheotherhandEllisIntroduction，ii。491
wouldarguethatthefigureistoohigh。ButthewordsAliiibitenentwhichoccurattheendofnumerousentriesmean，webelieve，notthatthereareinthisvillotherunenumeratedtillersofthesoil，butthatthevillisdividedbetweenseveraltenantsinchief。
32。D。B。i。162b。
33。Ellis\'sfiguresare：England283，242：thethreecounties，72，883。
34。WetakethesefiguresfromEllis。
35。LaySubsidy，25Edw。1。YorkshireArchaeologicalSociety，pp。xxxi-xxxv。Fractionsofapoundareneglected。
36。Powell，TheRisinginEastAnglia，120-3。Thegreatdecreasebetween1377and1381inthenumberofpersonstaxed，wemustnottrytoexplain。
37。SeetheserviceablemapsinSeebohm，VillageCommunity，86。
ButtheyseemtotreatYorkshireunfairly。Ithas5。5percentofsokemen。
38。ThisisfoundatthebeginningoftheInquisitioEliensis；D。
B。iv。497；Hamilton，Inquisitio，97。SeeRound，FeudalEngland，133ff。
39。Wemustnothastilydrawtheinferencethateverypartyofcommissionersreceivedthesamesetofinstructions。Perhaps，forexample，carucates，nothides，werementionedintheinstructionsgiventothosecommissionerswhoweretovisitthecarucatedcounties。Perhapsthenon-appearanceofserviinYorkshireandLincolnshiremaybeduetonodeepercause。
2。THESERFS
Theexistenceofsome25，000serfsisrecorded。Inthethirteenthcenturyservusandvillanusare，atleastamonglawyers，equivalentwords。Theonlyunfreemanisthe\'serf-villein\'andthelawyersaretryingtosubjecthimtothecuriousprinciplethatheisthelord\'schattelbutafreemaninrelationtoallbuthislord。1*ItisfarotherwiseinDomesdayBook。Inentryafterentryandcountyaftercountytheserviarekeptwellapartfromthevillani，bordarii，cotarii。Oftentheyarementionedinquiteanothercontexttothatinwhichthevillaniareenumerated。AsaninstancewemaytakeamanorinSurrey；2*——\'Indemesnethereare5teamsandthereare25
villaniand6bordariiwith14teams。Thereisonemillof2
shillingsandonefisheryandonechurchand4acresofmeadow，andwoodfor150pannagepigs，and2stone-quarriesof2
shillingsand2nestsofhawksinthewoodand10servi。\'Oftenenoughtheserviareplacedbetweentwoothersourcesofwealth，thechurchandthemill。Insomecountiestheyseemtotakeprecedenceoverthevillani；thecommonformulais\'Indominiosuntacurucaeetbservietcvillanietdbordariicumecarucis。\'Butthisisdelusive；theformulaisbringingtheserviintoconnexionwiththedemesneteamsandseparatingthemfromtheteamsofthetenants。Wemustrenderitthus——\'Onthedemesnethereareateamsandbservi；andtherearecvillanianddbordariiwitheteams。\'Stillweseemtoseeagentlygraduatedscaleofsocialclasses，villani，bordarii，cotarii，servi，andwhilethejurorsofonecountywillarrangetheminonefashion，thejurorsofanothercountymayadoptadifferentscheme。Thusintheirclassificationofmankindthejurorswillsometimeslaygreatstressonthepossessionofploughoxen。InHertfordshireweread：——\'Thereare6teamsindemesneand41
villaniand17bordariihave20teams……thereare22cotariiand12servi。3*——\'Thepriest，13villaniand4bordariihave6
teams……therearetwocotariiand4servi。\'4*——\'Thepriestand24villanihave13teams……thereare12bordarii，16cotariiand11servi。\'5*Adivisionisinthisinstancemadebetweenthepeoplewhohaveoxenandthepeoplewhohavenone；villanihaveoxen，cotariiandservihavenone；sometimesthebordariistandabovethisline，sometimesbelowit。
OfthelegalpositionoftheservusDomesdayBooktellsuslittleornothing；butearlierandlaterdocumentsobligeustothinkofhimasaslave，onewhointhemainhasnolegalrights。
Heisthethe體oftheAnglo-Saxondooms，theservusoftheecclesiasticalcanons。Butthoughwedorightincallinghimaslave，stillwemightwellbemistakenwerewetothinkofthelinewhichdivideshimfromothermenasbeingassharpasthelinewhichamaturejurisprudencewilldrawbetweenthingandperson。Wemaywelldoubtwhetherthisprinciple——\'Theslaveisathing，notaperson\'——canbefullyunderstoodbyagrosslybarbarousage。Itimpliestheideaofaperson，andintheworldofsensewefindnotpersonsbutmen。
Thusdegreesofservilityarepossible。Aclassmaystand，asitwere，half-waybetweentheclassofslavesandtheclassoffreemen。TheKentishlawoftheseventhcenturyasitappearsinthedoomsofAEthelbert，6*likemanyofitscontinentalsisters，knowsaclassofmenwhoperhapsarenotfreemenandyetarenotslaves；itknowsthelaetaswellasthethe體。FromwhatracetheKentishlaethassprung，andhow，whenitcomestodetails，thelawwilltreathim——theseareobscurequestions，andthelatterofthemcannotbeansweredunlessweapplytohimwhatiswrittenaboutthelaeti，litiandlidiofthecontinent。
Heisthusfarapersonthathehasasmallwergildbutpossiblyheisboundtothesoil。OnlyinAEthelbert\'sdoomsdowereadofhim。Fromlaterdays，untilDomesdayBookbreaksthesilence，wedonotobtainanydefiniteevidenceoftheexistenceofanyclassofmenwhoarenotslavesbutnonethelessaretiedtotheland。
Ofmenwhoareboundtodoheavylabourservicesfortheirlordswedohear，butwedonothearthatiftheyrunawaytheycanbecapturedandbroughtback。Asweshallseebyandby，DomesdayBookbearswitnesstotheexistenceofaclassofburi，burs，coliberti，whoseemtobedistinctlysuperiortotheservi，butdistinctlyinferiortothevilleins，bordiersandcottiers。Itisbynomeansimpossiblethatthey，withoutbeingslaves，areinaveryproperandintelligiblesenseunfreemen，thattheyhavecivilrightswhichtheycanassertincourtsoflaw，butthattheyaretiedtothesoil。ThegulfbetweentheseventhandtheeleventhcenturiesistoowidetoallowofourconnectingthemwiththelaetofAEthelbert\'slaws，butstillourdocumentsarenotexhaustiveenoughtojustifyusindenyingthatallalongtherehasbeenaclassthoughitcanhardlyhavebeenalargeclassofmenwhocouldnotquittheirtenementsandyetwerenoslaves。Asweshallseehereafter，libertywasincertaincontextsreckonedasamatterofdegree；eventhevillanus，eventhesochemannus，wasnotforeverypurposeliberhomo。Whenthisisso，thethe體orservusisliketoappearastheunfreestofpersonsratherthanasnopersonbutathing。
Inthesecondplace，wemayguessthatfromaremotetimetherehasbeenintheconditionofthethe體acertainelementofpraediality。Theslaveshavenotbeenworkedingangsnorhousedinbarracks。7*Theservushasoftenbeenaservuscasatus，hehashadacottageorevenamanseandyardlandwhichdefactohemightcallhisown。Thereisherenolegallimitationofhismaster\'spower。Someslavetradetherehasbeen；butonthewholeitseemsprobablethatthethe體hasbeenusuallytreatedasannexedtoatenement。Thedutiesexactedofhimfromyeartoyearhaveremainedconstant。Theconsequenceisthatafreemaninreturnforaplotoflandmaywellagreetodoallthatathe體usuallydoesandseeinthisnodescentintoslavery。Thustheslavegetsachanceofacquiringwhatwillbeasamatteroffactapeculium。Intheseventhcenturythechurchtriedtoturnthismatteroffactintomatteroflaw。\'Nonlicethomini，\'saysTheodore\'sPenitential，\'aservotollerepecuniam，quamipselaboresuoadquesierit。\'8*Wehavenoreasonforthinkingthatthiseffortwasverystrenuousorverysuccessful，orthatthelawoftheeleventhcenturyallowedtheservusanyproprietaryrights；andyethemightoftenbetheoccupieroflandandofchattelswithwhich，solongashedidhiscustomaryservices，hislordwouldseldommeddle。
Inthethirdplace，wemaybelievethatforsometimepastpolicelawandpunitivelawhavebeendoingsomethingtoconceal，ifnottoobliterate，thelinewhichseparatestheslavefromothermen。Amaturejurisprudencemaybeabletoholdfastthefundamentalprinciplethataslaveisnotapersonbutathing，whileatthesametimeitbothlimitsthemaster\'spowerofabusinghishumanchattelandguardsagainstthosedangerswhichmayarisefromtheexistenceofthingswhichhavewills，andsometimesbadwills，oftheirown。Butanimmaturejurisprudenceisincapableofthisexploit。Itbeginstoplayfastandloosewithitselementarynotions。Itbeginstopunishthecriminousslavewithoutbeingquitecertainastohowfaritispunishinghimandhowfaritispunishinghismaster。Confusioniseasy，foriftheslavebepunishedbydeathormutilation，hismasterwillsuffer，andapecuniarymulctexactedfromtheslaveisexactedfromhismaster。LearnedwritershavecometothemostoppositeopinionsastotheextenttowhichtheAnglo-Saxondoomsbytheirdistributionofpenaltiesrecognizethepersonalityofthethe體。Butthisisnotall。Foralongtimepastthelawhashadbeforeitthedifficultproblemofdealingwithcrimesanddelictscommittedbypoorandeconomicallydependentfreemen，menwhohavenolandoftheirown，whoarehereto-dayandgoneto-morrow，\'menfromwhomnorightcanbehad。\'Ithasbeenendeavouringtomakethelordsanswerabletoacertainextentforthemisdeedsoftheirfreeretainers。Ifaslaveischargedwithacrimehismasterisboundtoproducehimincourt。Butthelawrequiresthatthelordshallinverysimilarfashionproducehisfree\'loafeater，\'hismainpast，nay，ithasbeenendeavouringtoenforcetherulethateveryfreemanwhohasnolandofhisownshallhavealordboundtoproducehimwhenheisaccused。Alsoithasbeenfosteringthegrowthofprivatejustice。Thelord\'sdutyofproducinghismen，bondandfree，hasbeenbecomingthedutyofholdingacourtinwhichhismen，freeandbond，willanswerforthemselves。HowfarthisprocesshadgoneinthedaysoftheConfessorisaquestiontowhichweshallreturn。9*
Forallthis，however，wemaysaywithcertaintythatintheeleventhcenturytheserviweremarkedofffromallothermenbydefinitelegallines。Whatismore，wemaysaythateverymanwhowasnotathe體wasinsomedefinitelegalsenseafreeman。ThissharpcontrastisputbeforeusbythelawsofCnutaswellasbythoseofhispredecessors。Ifafreemanworksonaholiday，hepaysforitwithhishealsfang；ifathe體niandoesthelike，hepaysforitwithhishideorhishide-geld。10*EquallysharpisthesamedistinctionintheLegesHenrici，andthistooinpassageswhich，sofarasweknow，arenotborrowedfromAnglo-Saxondocuments。Formanypurposes\'autservusautliberhomo\'isaperfectdilemma。Thereisnoconfusionwhateverbetweenthevillaniandtheservi。Thevillaniare\'vilesetinopespersonae\'butclearlyenoughtheyareliberihomines。SoalsointheQuadripartitus，theLatintranslationoftheancientdoomsmadeinHenryI\'sreign，thereisnoconfusionaboutthismatter；thethe體manbecomesaservus，whilevillanusistheequivalentforceorl。TheNormanwritersstilltellhowaccordingtotheoldlawoftheEnglishthevillanusmightbecomeathegnifheacquiredfivehidesofland；11*attimestheywillputbeforeusvillaniandthainiorevenvillaniandbaronesasanexhaustiveclassificationoffreemen。12*
LetuslearnwhatmaybelearntoftheservusfromtheLegesHenrici。Everymaniseitheraliberhomooraservus。13*Freemenareeithertwo-hundred-menortwelve-hundredmen；perhapsweoughttoaddthatthereisalsoaclassofsix-hundred-men。14*
Aserfbecomessucheitherbybirthorbysomeevent，suchasasaleintoslavery，thathappensinhislifetime。15*Servilebloodistransmitted，fromfathertochild；somelordsholdthatitisalsotransmittedbymothertochild。16*Ifaslaveistobefreedthisshouldbedonepublicly，incourt，orchurchormarket，andlanceandhelmetorotherthearmsoffreemenshouldbegivenhim，whileheshouldgivehislordthirtypence，thatisthepriceofhisskin，asasignthatheishenceforth\'worthyofhishide。\'Ontheotherhand，whenafreemanfallsintoslaverythenalsothereshouldbeapublicceremony。Heshouldputhisheadbetweenhislord\'shandsandshouldreceiveasthearmsofslaverysomebill-hookorthelike。17*Publicceremoniesarerequisite，forthestateisendangeredbytheuncertainconditionofaccusedcriminals；thelordswillassertatonemomentthattheirmenarefreeandatthenextmomentthatthesesamemenareslaves。18*Thedescentofafreemanintoslaveryistreatedasnouncommonevent；theslavemaywellhavefreekinsfolk。19*
But，tocometothefundamentalrule，thevillanus，themeanestoffreemen，isatwo-hundred-man，thatistosay，ifhebeslaintheverysubstantialwergildof200Saxonshillingsor？mustbepaidtohiskinsfolk，20*whileaman-b髏of30shillingsispaidtohislord。21*Butifaservusbeslainhiskinsfolkreceivethecomparativelytriflingsumof40pencewhilethelordgetstheman-b髏of20shillings。22*Thattheserf\'skinsfolkshouldreceiveasmallsumneednotsurpriseus。Germaniclawhasneverfounditeasytocarrytheprinciplethattheslaveisachatteltoextremeconclusions；butthepaymentseemstriflingandhalfcontemptuous；atanyratethelifeofthevilleinisworththelifeoftwenty-fourserfs。23*Thenagain，itisbynomeanscertainthatalordcannotkillhisserfwithimpunity。
\'If，\'saysourtext，\'amanslayhisownserf，hisisthesinandhisistheloss\'：——wemayinterpretthistomeanthathehassinnedbutsinnedagainsthimself。24*Thenagain，fortheevildeedsofhisslavethemasterisinsomedegreeresponsible。Ifmyslavebeguiltyofapettytheftnotworthyofdeath，Iamboundtomakerestitution；ifthecrimebeacapitaloneandhebetakenhandhaving，thenhemust\'dielikeafreeman。\'25*Ifmyslavebeguiltyofhomicide，mydutyistosethimfreeandhandhimovertothekindredoftheslain，butapparentlyImaypurchasehislifebyasumof40shillings，asummuchlessthantheweroftheslainman。26*Wemustnotbetoohardontheownersofdelinquentslaves。Therearecases，forexample，inwhich，severalslaveshavingcommittedacrime，oneofthemchosenbylotmustsufferforthesinsofall。27*Ourauthorisborrowingfromthelawsofseveraldifferentcenturiesanddoesnotarriveatanyneatresult；normustwewonderatthis，fortheproblemspresentedtojurisprudencebythecrimesanddelictsofslavesareveryintricate。Thenagain，wehavetherulethatiffreemenandserfsjoininacrime，thewholeguiltistobeattributedtothefree：hewhojoinswithaslaveinathefthasnocompanion。28*Onthewhole，thoughtheslaveislikelytohaveasamatteroffactapeculiumofhisown，apeculiumoutofwhichhemaybeabletopayforhisoffencesandevenperhapstopurchasehisliberty，29*theservusofourLegesseemstobeinthemainarightlessbeing。WelookinvainforanytraceofthatideaoftherelativityofservitudewhichbecomesthecoreofBracton\'sdoctrine。30*Atthesametimeweobservethatmany，perhapsmost，oftheruleswhichmarktheslavishconditionoftheserfareancientrulesandrulesthatarebecomingobsolete。
Inthetwelfthcenturytheoldsystemofwerandb髏isalreadyvanishing，thoughanantiquarianlawyermayyettrytorevivifyit。Whenitdisappearsaltogetherbeforethenewlaw，whichholdseverygravecrimetobeafelony，andpunishesalmosteveryfelonywithdeath，31*manygranddifferencesbetweenthevilleinandtheserfwillhaveperished。Thegallowsisagreatleveller。
IfnowwerecurtothedaysoftheConquest，wecannotdoubtthatthelawknewadefiniteclassofslaves，andmarkedthemoffbymanydistinctionsfromthevillaniandcotarii，andevenfromthecoliberti。Sumsthatseemhighwerebeingpaidformenwhosefreedomwasbeingpurchased。32*AtLewesthetollpaidforthesaleofanoxwasahalfpenny；onthesaleofamanitwasfourpence。33*Inlaterdocumentswemaysometimesseeadistinctionwelldrawn。ThusintheBlackBookofPeterborough，compiledin1127orthereabouts，wemayreadhowononeofhismanorstheabbothaseightherdsmenbovarii，howeachofthemholdstenacres，hastodolabourservicesandrenderloavesandpoultry。Andthenwereadthateachofthemmustpayonepennyforhisheadifhebeafreemanliberhomo，whilehepaysnothingifhebeaservus。34*Thisisawell-drawndistinction。
Oftwomenwhoseeconomicpositionispreciselythesame，theonemaybefree，theotheraslave，anditisthefreeman，nottheslave，whohastopayahead-penny。NowwhentheConqueror\'ssurveyors，orratherthejurors，callamanaservustheyare，soitseemstous，thinkingratherofhislegalstatusthanofhispositionintheeconomyofamanor。Atanyrateweoughttoobservethattheeconomicstratificationofsocietymaycutthelegalstratification。Weareaccustomedperhapstosupposethatwhilethevillanihavelandsthatareinsomesensetheirown，whiletheysupportthemselvesandtheirfamiliesbytillingthoselands，theservushasnolandthatisinanysensehisown，butisfedathislord\'sboard，ishousedinhislord\'scourt，andspendsallhistimeinthecultivationofhislord\'sdemesnelands。SuchmayhavebeenthecaseinthosepartsofEnglandwherewehearofbutfewservi；thosefewmayhavebeeninmatesofthelord\'shouseandhavehadnoplotsoftheirown。Butsuchcanhardlyhavebeenthecaseinthesouth-westerncounties；theserviaretoomanytobemenials。Indeeditwouldseemthattheseservisometimeshadarableplots，andhadoxen，whichweretobedistinguishedfromthedemesneoxenoftheirlords——notindeedasamatteroflaw，butasamatterofeconomicusage。35*Itisplainthatthelegalandtheeconomiclinesmayintersectoneanother；themenialwhoisfedbythelordandwhomustgivehiswholetimetothelord\'sworkmaybeafreeman；theslavemayhaveacottageandoxenandaplotofarableland，andlabourforhimselfaswellaslabouringforhislord。Henceaperplexedanduncertainterminology：——theservuswhohaslandandoxenmaybecasuallycalledavillanus，36*andwecannotbesurethatnoonewhomourrecordcallsaservushasthewergildofafreeman。
Norcanwebesurethattheenumerationoftheserviisalwaysgovernedbyoneconsistentprinciple。IntheshiresofGloucester，HerefordandWorcesterwereadofnumerousancillae——inWorcestershireof677serviand101ancillae37*——andthismaymakeusthinkthatinthisdistrictalltheable-bodiedserfsareenumerated，whetherornotheyhavecottagestothemselves。38*Wemaystronglysuspectthattheking\'scommissionerswerenotmuchinterestedinthelinethatseparatedthevillanifromtheservi，sincethelordwasasdirectlyanswerableforthegeldofanylandsthatwereintheoccupationofhisvilleinsashewasforthegeldofthoseplotsthatweretilledforhimbyhisslaves。Thatthereshouldhavebeenneverathe體inallYorkshireandLincolnshireishardlycredible，andyetwehearofnoserviinthosecounties。
Thisbeingso，weencountersomedifficultyifwewouldputjusttherightinterpretationonaremarkablefactthatisvisibleinEssex。Thedescriptionofthatcountytellsusnotonlyhowmanyvillani，bordariiandservitherearenow，butalsohowmanytherewereinKingEdward\'sday，andthusshowswhatchangeshavetakenplaceduringthelasttwentyyears。Nowonmanoraftermanorthenumberofvilleinsandbordiers，ifofthemwemakeoneclass，hasincreased，whilethenumberofservihasfallen。Wetake100entriesfourbatchesof25apieceandseethatthenumberofvillaniandbordariihasrisenfrom1486to1894，whilethenumberofservihasfallenfrom423to303。Wemakeanotherexperimentwithahundredentries。Thisgivesthefollowingresult：——
10661086
Villani12731247
Bordarii8101241
Servi384312
Thisdecreaseinthenumberofserviseemstobeprettyevenlydistributedthroughoutthecounty。39*Weshallnotreadilyascribethechangetoanymildheartednessofthelords。
TheyareFrenchmen，andinallprobabilitytheyhavegotthemosttheycouldoutofamassofpeasantrymademalleableandmanageablebytheConquest。Wemayratherbeentitledtoinferthattherehasbeenaconsiderablechangeinruraleconomy。ForthecultivationofhisdemesnelandthelordbeginstorelylessandlessonthelabourofserfswhomheReeds，moreandmoreuponthelabouroftenantswhohaveplotsoftheirownandwhofeedthemselves。Fromthisagainwemayperhapsinferthatthelabourservicesofthevillaniandbordariiarebeingaugmented。Butatanyrateitspeaksilloftheirfate，thatundertheswayofforeigners，whomayfairlybesuspectedofsomeharshnessandgreed，theirinferiors，thetrueservi，aresomewhatrapidlydisappearing。However，itisbynomeansimpossiblethatwithaslaverysocompleteasthatoftheEnglishthe體theNormanswerenotveryfamiliarintheirowncountry。40*
NOTES：
1。Hist。Eng。Law，i。398。
2。D。B。i。34，Limenesfeld。
3。D。B。i。132b，Hiz。
4。D。B。i。132b，Waldenei。
5。D。B。i。136，Sandone。
6。AEthelb。26。
7。Tacitus，Germ。c。25：\'Caeterisservisnoninnostrummorem，descriptisperfamiliamministeriis，utuntur。Suamquisquesedem，suospenatesregit。Frumentimodumdominusautpecorisautvestisutcolonoiniungit，etservushactenusparet。\'
8。HaddanandStubbs，Councils，iii。202。
9。SeeontheonehandMaurer，K。U。i。410，ontheotheralearnedessaybyJastrow，ZurstrafrechtlichenStellungderSklaven，inGierke\'sUntersuchungenzurDeutscheGeschichte，vol。
i。MaurerholdsthattheAnglo-Saxonslaveisinthemainachattel，thate。g。themastermustanswerforthedelictsofhisslaveinthesamewaythattheowneranswersfordamagedonebyhisbeasts，andthatthisliabilitycanbeclearlymarkedofffromthedutyofthelordoffreeretainerswhoismerelyboundtoproducethemincourt。Jastrow，onthecontrary，thinksthatevenataquiteearlytimetheAnglo-Saxonslaveistreatedasapersonbycriminallaw；hehasawergild；hecanbefined；histrespassesarenevercomparedtothetrespassesofbeasts；thelord\'sduty，ifoneofhismenischargedwithcrime，ismuchthesamewhetherthatmanbefreeorbond。Anytheoryinvolvesanexplanationofseveralpassagesthatareobscureandperhapscorrupt。
10。Cnut，ii。45-6。
11。Schmid，Appendixv。OfRanks；PseudolegesCanuti，60
Schmid，p。431。
12。Leg。Hen。76sect。7：\'DifferentiatamenweregildimultaestinCantiavillanorumetbaronum。\'
13。Ibid。76sect。2。
14。Ibid。76sect。3。
15。Ibid。76sect。3。
16。Ibid。77；seeHist。Eng。Law，i。405。
17。Ibid。78sect。2。Thedifficultstrublumweleaveuntouched。
18。Ibid。78sect。2fromCnut，ii。20。OnthisseeJastrow\'scomment，op。cit。p。80。
19。Ibid。70sect。5。
20。Ibid。70sect。1；76sect。4。
21。Ibid。69sect。2。
22。Leg。Hen。70sect。4：\'Siliberservumoccidatsimiliterreddatparentibus40den。etduasmufflasetunumpullum[al。
billum]mutilatum。\'Themufflaearethickgloves。CompareAncientLawsofWales，i。239，511；injuredhereceivesasaraad；thebondmanhasnogalanaswergildbutif\'thesaraadofabondmanistwelvepence，sixforacoatforhim，threefortrousers，oneforbuskins，oneforahookandoneforarope，andifhebeawoodmanletthehook-pennybeforanaxe。\'IfwereadbilluminsteadofpullumtheEnglishrulemayremindusoftheWelsh。
Hishedger\'sglovesandbill-hookarethearmsappropriatetotheserf，\'servitutis，arma\'。cf。Leg。Hen。78sect。2。Astotheman-b髏seeLiebermann，Leg。Edwardi，p。71。
23。InLeg。Hen。81sect。3apassagewhichseemstoshowthatbyhismaster\'sfavoureventheservusmaysometimessueforawrongdonetohimwehavethissum：——villanus：cothsetus：
servus：：30：15：6。
24。Ibid。75sect。4：\'suumpeccatumestetdampnum。\'Seealso70
sect。10，anexceedinglyobscurepassage。
25。Ibid。59sect。23。
26。Ibid。70sect。5；butforthisourauthorhastogobackasfarasIne。
27。Ibid。59sect。25。
28。Leg。Hen。59sect。24；85sect。4：\'Solusfuraturquicumservofuratur。\'
29。Ibid。78sect。3；59sect。25。
30。Hist。Eng。Law，i。398，402。
31。Hist。Eng。Law，ii。457。
32。SeeBathmanumissions，Kemble，Saxons，i。507ff。Sometimesapoundorahalf-poundispaid。
33。D。B。i。26。
34。Chron。Petrob。163。
35。D。B。i。105b，Devon：\'RolftenetdeB[alduino]Boslie……
Terraest8carucis。Indominioest1carucaetdimidiaet7
servicum1caruca。\'D。B。iv。265；\'Balduinushabet1mansionemquaevocaturBosleia……hancpossuntarare8carrucaeetmodoteneteamRoffusdeBalduino。IndehabetR。1ferdinumet1
carrucametdimidiamindominioetvillanitenentaliamterramethabentibi1carrucam。IbihabetR。7servos。\'IntheExeterrecordthesesevenserfsseemtogetreckonedasbeingbothserviandvillani。SointheaccountofRentis，D。B。iv。204-5，thelordissaidtohaveonequarterofthearableindemesneandtwooxen，whilethevillaniaresaidtohavetherestofthearableandoneteam；buttheonlyvillaniare8colibertiand4servi。
36。Seep。59，note2。
37。Ellis，Introduction，ii。504-6。
38。See，forexample，thefollowingHerefordshireentry，D。B。i。
180b：\'Indominiosunt2carucaeet4villaniet8bordariietprepositusetbedellus。Interomneshabent4carucas。Ibi8interservosetancillasetvaccariusetdaia。\'
39。MrRoundhasdrawnattentiontothegreatincreaseofbordarii：Antiquary1882vi。9。Inthesecondofourtwoexperimentsthecasesweretakenfromtheroyaldemesneandthelandsthechurches。ThesurveysofNorfolkandSuffolkprofesstoenumeratethevariousclassesofpeasantsT。R。E。；butcommonlyeachentryreportsthattherehasbeennochange。Withoutsayingthatwedisbelievethesereports，weneverthelesssaythataverdictwhichassertsthatthingshavealwayssemperbeenastheynowaremayeasilybetheoutcomeofnescience。
40。Hist。Eng。Law，i。53-4。
3。THEVILLEINS
Nextabovetheserviweseethesmallbutinterestingclassofburi，bursorcoliberti。Probablyitwasnotmentionedinthewritwhichsetthecommissionerstheirtask，andthismaywellbethereasonwhyitappearsasbutaverysmallclass。Ithassome900members；stillitisrepresentedinfourteenshires：
Hampshire，Berkshire，Wiltshire，Dorset，Somerset，Devon，Cornwall，Buckingham，Oxford，Gloucester，Worcester，Hereford，Warwick，Shropshire——inshort，intheshiresofWessexandwesternMercia。Twiceoverourrecordexplainsapieceofraregoodfortune——thatburiandcolibertiareallone。1*Ingeneraltheyarepresentedtousasbeingakinrathertotheservithantothevillaniorbordarii，aswhenwearetold，\'Indemesnethereisonevirgateoflandandthereare3teamsand11
serviand5coliberti，andthereare15villaniand15bordariiwith8teams。\'2*Butthisruleisbynomeansunbroken；
sometimesthecolibertiareseparatedfromtheserviandaprecedenceoverthecotariiorevenoverthebordariiisgiventhem。ThusofaWiltshiremanoritiswritten，\'Indemesnethereare8teamsand20serviand41villaniand30bordariiand7
colibertiand74cotariihaveamongthemall27teams。\'3*AgainofaWarwickshiremanor，\'Thereislandfor26teams；indemesneare3teamsand4serviand43villaniand6colibertiand10
bordariiwith16teams。\'4*Aclassificationwhichturnsuponlegalstatusiscutbyaclassificationwhichturnsuponeconomiccondition。Thecolibertuswetaketobeanunfreermanhowtherecometobedegreesoffreedomisaquestiontobeaskedbyandbythanthecotariusorthebordarius，butonagivenmanorhemaybeamoreimportantperson，forhemayhaveploughbeastswhilethecotariushasnone；hemayhavetwooxenwhilethebordariushasbutanox。
IncallinghimacolibertustheNormanclerksaregivinghimaforeignname，theetymologicaloriginofwhichisverydark；5*butthismuchseemsplain，thatintheFranceoftheeleventhcenturyalargeclassbearingthisnamehadbeenformedoutofancientelements，RomancoloniandGermanicliti，aclasswhichwasnotrightlessforitcouldbedistinguishedfromtheclassofservi，andacolibertusmightbemadeaservusbywayofpunishmentforhiscrimesbutwhichyetwasunfree，forthecolibertuswholefthislordmightbepursuedandrecaptured。6*
AstotheEnglishmanuponwhomthisnameisbestowedweknowhimtobeageb鷕，aboor，andwelearnsomethingofhimfromthatmysteriousdocumententitled\'RectitudinesSingularumPersonarum。7*Hisservices，wearetold，varyfromplacetoplace；insomedistrictsheworksforhislordtwodaysaweekandduringharvest-timethreedaysaweek；hePaysgafolinmoney，barley，sheepandpoultry；alsohehasploughingtodobesideshisweek-work；hepayshearthpenny；heandoneofhisfellowsmustbetweenthemfeedadog。Itisusualtoprovidehimwithanoutfitoftwooxen，onecow，sixsheep，andseedforsevenacresofhisyardland，andalsotoprovidehimwithhouseholdstuff；onhisdeathallthesechattelsgobacktohislord。Thustheboorisputbeforeusasatenantwithahouseandayardlandorvirgate，andtwoploughoxen。Hewillthereforeplayamoreimportantpartinthemanorialeconomythanthecottagerwhohasnobeasts。Butheisaverydependentperson；
hisbeasts，eventhepoorfurnitureofhishouse，hispotsandcrocks，areprovidedforhimbyhislord。Probablyitisthisthatmarkshimofffromtheordinaryvillanusor\'townsman，\'andbringshimneartheserf。Inasensehemaybeafreeman。Wehaveseenhowthelaw，whetherwelookforittothecodeofCnutortotheLegesHenrici，isholdingfastthepropositionthateveryonewhoisnotathe體manisafreeman，thateveryoneiseitheraliberhomooraservus。Wehavenowarrantfordenyingtotheboorthefullwergildof200shillings。Hepaysthehearthpenny，orPeter\'spenny，andthedocumentthattellsusthiselsewherementionsthispaymentasthemarkofafreeman。8*Andyetinaverytrueandaccuratesensehemaybeunfree，unfreetoquithislord\'sservice。Allthathehasbelongstohislord；hemustbeperpetuallyindebttohislord；
hecouldhardlyleavehislordwithoutbeingguiltyofsomethingveryliketheft，aabstractionofchattelscommittedtohischarge。Veryprobablyifheflies，hislordhasarighttorecapturehim。Ontheotherhand，sodependentamanwillbeinaverystrictsenseatenantatwill。Whenhediesnotonlyhistenementbuthisstockwillbelongtothelord；liketheFrenchcolibertheismainmortable。Atthesametime，toonefamiliarwiththecartulariesofthethirteenthcenturytherentsandservicesthatthisboorhastopayandperformforhisvirgatewillnotappearenormous。Ifwemistakenot，manyavillanusofHenryIII\'sdaywouldhavethoughtthemlight。Ofcourseanysuchcomparisonisbesetbydifficulties，foratpresentweknowalltoolittleofthehistoryofwagesandprices。NeverthelesstheintermediationofthisclassofburiorcolibertibetweentheserfsandthevilleinsofDomesdayBookmusttendtoraiseourestimatebothofthelegalfreedomandoftheeconomicwelfareofthatgreatmassofpeasantswhichisnowtocomebeforeus。9*
Thatgreatmassconsistsofsome108，500villani，some82，600
bordarii，andsome6，800cotariiandcoscets。10*Thoughinmanoraftermanorwemayfindrepresentativesofeachofthesethreeclasses，wecanseethatforsomeimportantpurposetheyformbutonegrandclass，andthatthetermvillanusmaybeusedtocoverthewholegenusaswellastodesignateoneofitsthreespecies。IntheExonDomesdayacommonformula，havingstatedthenumberofhidesinthemanorandthenumberofteamsforwhichitcanfindwork，proceedstodividethelandandtheexistingteamsbetweenthedemesneandthevillani——thevillani，itwillsay，havesomanyhidesandsomanyteams。Thenitwillstatehowmanyvillani，bordarii，cotariithereare。Butitwillsometimesfalloutthattherearenovillaniifthattermistobeusedinitsspecificsense，andso，afterhavingbeentoldthatthevillanihavesomuchlandandsomanyteams，welearnthattheonlyvillanionthismanorarebordarii。11*Thelineswhichdividethethreespeciesare，wemaybesure，muchrathereconomicthanlegallines。Ofcoursethelawmayrecognisethemuponoccasion，12*butwecannotsaythatthebordariushasadifferentstatusfromthatofthevillanus。IntheLegesbothfallunderthetermvillani；indeed，ashereafterwillbeseen，thattermhassometimestocoverallmenwhoarenotservibutarenotnoble。Normustwesupposethattheeconomiclinesaredrawnwithmuchprecisionoraccordingtoanyoneuniformpattern。Ofvillaniandbordariiwemayreadineverycounty；
cotariiorcoscetsinconsiderablenumbersarefoundonlyinKent，Sussex，Surrey，Middlesex，Wiltshire，Dorset，Somerset，Berkshire，HertfordandCambridge，thoughtheyarenotabsolutelyunknowninBuckingham，inDevon，inHereford，Worcester，Shropshire，Yorkshire。WecannottellhowtheEnglishjurorswouldhaveexpressedthedistinctionbetweenbordariiandcotarii，forwhilethecotisEnglish，thebordeisFrench。Ifweareentitledtodrawanyinferencefromthedistributionofthecottiers，itwouldbethatthesmallestofsmalltenementsweretobefoundchieflyalongthesouthernshore；butthentherearenocotariiinHampshire，plentyinSussex，Surrey，WiltshireandDorset。Again，inthetwoshireslastmentionedsomedistinctionseemstobetakenbetweenthecoscetsandthecotarii，theformerbeingsuperiortothelatter。13*TwocenturieslaterwefindasimilardistinctionamongthetenantsofWorcesterPriory。Therearecotmanniwhoserentsandservicesareheavier，andwhosetenementsarepresumablylargerthanthoseofthecotarii，thoughthedifferenceisnotverygreat。14*
Thevaguenessofdistinctionssuchastheseiswellillustratedbythefailureoftheterm。bordariusandnoneismoreprominentinDomesdayBooktotakefirmrootinthiscountry。15*Thesuccessorsofthebordariiseemtobecomeinthelaterdocumentseithervillaniwithsmallorcottierswithlargetenements。Distinctionswhichturnontheamountoflandthatispossessedortheamountofservicethatisdonecannotbeaccuratelyformulatedandforceduponawholecountry。PerhapsingeneralwemayendowthevillanusofDomesdayBookwithavirgateorquarterofahide，whileweascribetothebordariusalessquantityanddoubtwhetherthecotariususuallyhadarableland。
ButthesurveyofMiddlesex，whichisthemainauthority，touchingthismatter，showsthatthevillanusmayonoccasionhaveawholehide，16*thatisfourvirgates，andthatoftenhehasbuthalfavirgate；itshowsusthatthebordarius，thoughoftenhehasbutfourorfiveacres，mayhaveahalfvirgate，thatisasmuchasmanyavillanus；17*itshowsusthatthecotariusmayhavefiveacres，thatisasmuchasmanyabordarius，18*thoughhewilloftenhavenomorethanacroft。19*InEssexwehearofbordariiwhoheldnoarableland。20*Nordarewelaydownanysternruleaboutthepossessionofploughbeasts。Itwouldseemasifsometimesthebordariushadoxen，whilesometimeshehadnone。21*Thevillanusmighthavetwooxen，buthemighthavemoreorless。WemayfindthatinCornwallasingleteamofeightisforthcomingwherethereare22*
3villani，4bordarii，2servi2“2“3“
0“5“2“
1“5“1“
2“5“4“
2“3“1“
3“6“3“
InsomeGloucestershiremanorseveryvilleinseemstohaveafullploughteam。23*Merelyeconomicgradesareessentiallyindefinite。Whocouldhavedefineda\'cottage\'intheeleventhcentury？Whocandefineonenow？24*
Intruththevastclassofmenthatweareexaminingmusthavebeenheterogeneoustoahighdegree。Notonlyweresomemembersofitmuchwealthierthanothers，butinallprobabilitysomewereeconomicallysubjecttoothers。Soitwasinlaterdays。Inthethirteenthcenturywemayeasilyfindamanorinwhichthelordispayinghardlyanywages。Hegetsnearlyallhisagriculturalworkdoneforhimbyhisvilleinsandhiscottiers。
Outofhiscottiershoweverhewillgetbutoneday\'sworkintheweek。Ifthenweaskwhatthecottiersaredoingduringtherestoftheirtime，theanswersurelymustbethattheyareoftenworkingashiredlabourersonthevillein\'svirgates，foracottiercannothavespentfivedaysintheweekoverthetillageofhispoorlittletenement。Itisaremarkablefeatureofthemanorialarrangementthatthemeanestofthelord\'snativiarebutrarelyworkingforhim。Thusifweweretoremovethelordinorderthatthevillagecommunitymightberevealed，weshouldstillseenotonlyrichandpoor，butemployersandemployed，villagersand\'undersettles。\'
Nowallthesepeopleareinasenseunfree，whileyetinsomeothersensetheyarefree。Letusthenspendashortwhileindiscussingthevariousmeaningsthatfreedommayhaveinalegalclassificationofthesortsandconditionsofmen。Whenwehaveputoutofaccounttherightlessslave，whoisathing，itstillremainspossibletosaythatsomemenareunfree，whileothersarefree，andeventhatfreedomisamatterofdegree。Butwemayusevariousstandardsforthemeasurementofliberty。
PerhapsinthefirstplaceweshallthinkofwhatGermanwriterscallFreiz黦igkeit，thepowertoleavethemasterwhomonehasbeenserving。Thispowerourancestorswouldperhapshavecalled\'fare-worthiness。\'25*Ifthemasterhastherighttorecapturetheservantwholeaveshisservice，orevenifhehastherighttocallupontheofficersofthestatetopursuehimandbringhimbacktohiswork，thenwemayaccountthisservantanunfreeman，albeittherelationbetweenhimandhismasterhasbeencreatedbyfreecontract。Suchunfreedomisverydistinctfromrightlessness。Asafreakofjurisprudencewemightimagineamodernnoblemanentitledtoreducebyforceandarmshisfugitivebutlertowell-paidandeasyduties，whileallthesamethatbutlerhadrightsagainstalltheworldincludinghismaster，hadaccesstoallcourts，andcouldevensueforhiswagesiftheywerenotpunctuallypaid。Ifwecallhimunfree，thenfreedomwilllooklikeamatterofdegree，forthemaster\'spowertogetbackhisfugitivemaybedefinedbylawindiversmanners。Mayhegoinpursuitanduseforce？Musthesendaconstableorsheriff\'sofficer？Musthefirstgotocourtandobtainajudgment，\'adecreeforspecificperformance\'ofthecontractofservice？Therightofrecaptureseemstoshadeoffgraduallyintoarighttoinsistthatabreachofthecontractofserviceisacriminaloffencetobepunishedbyfineorimprisonment。
Then，again，theremayseemtoustobemoreofunfreedominthecaseofonewhowasbornaservantthaninthecaseofonewhohascontractedtoserve，thoughweshouldnotethatonemaybeborntoservewithoutbeingbornrightless。
Moretothepointthantheseobviousreflectionswillbetheremarkthatinthethirteenthcenturywelearntothinkofvariousspheresorplanesofjustice。Arightgoodinonespheremayhavenoexistenceinanother。Therightsofthevilleinsintheirtenementsaresanctionedbymanorialjustice；theyareignoredbytheking\'scourts。Here，again，theideasoffreedomandunfreedomfindaparttoplay。Truethatintheorderoflegallogicfreedommayprecederoyalprotection；atenureisprotectedbecauseitisfree；stillmenaresoonarguingthatitisfreebecauseitisprotected，andthisprobablydisclosesanideawhichliesdeep：26*——theking\'scourts，thenationalcourts，areopentothefree；weapproachtherightlessnessoftheslaveifourrightsarerecognizedonlyinacourtofwhichourlordisthepresident。
Thethirteenthcenturywillalsosupplyuswiththenotionthatcontinuousagriculturalservice，serviceinwhichthereisaconsiderableelementofuncertainty，isunfreeservice。Wherefromdaytodaythelord\'swillcountsformuchindeterminingtheworkthathistenantsmustdo，suchtenants，eveniftheybefreemen，arenotholdingfreely。Butuncertaintyisamatterofdegree，andthereforeunfreedommayeasilyberegardedasamatterofdegree。27*
Then，again，inthelawbooksoftheNormanageweseedistincttracesofausagewhichwouldmakeliberorliberalisanequivalentforournoble，oratleastforourgentle。Thecommonmanwiththewergildof200shillings，thoughindubitablyheisnoservus，isnotliberalishomo。28*
Lastly，inourthirteenthcenturywelearnthatprivilegesandexceptionalimmunitiesare\'liberties\'and\'franchises。\'Whatisourdefinitionofaliberty，afranchise？Aportionofroyalpowerinthehandsofasubject。InHenryIII\'sdaywedonotsaythattheEarlofChesterisafreerman，moreofaliberhomo，thanistheEarlofGloucester，butwedosaythathehasmore，greater，higherliberties。
ThereforeweshallnotbesurprisedifinDomesdayBookwhatwereadoffreedom，offreemen，offreelandissadlyobscure。
Letusthenobservethatthevillanusbothisandisnotafreeman。
AccordingtotheusualterminologyoftheLeges，everyonewhoisabovetherankofaservus，butbelowtherankofathegn，isavillanus。Thevillanusisthenon-nobleliberhomo。AllthosenumeroussokemenoftheeasterncountieswhomDomesdayranksabovethevillani，allthosenumerousliberihomineswhomitranksabovethesokemen，are，accordingtothisscheme，villaniiftheybenotthegns。Andthisschemeisstillofgreatimportance，foritistheschemeofb髏andwer。Bywhathavebeenthemostvitalofalltherulesoflaw，allthesemenhavebeenmassedtogether；eachofthemhasaweroftwohundredshillings。29*This，wemayremarkinpassing，isnotrivialsum，thoughtheshillingsarethesmallSaxonshillingsoffourpenceorfivepence。Thereseemstobeagooddealofevidencethatforalongtimepasttheoxhadbeenvaluedat30pence，thesheepat5pence。30*Atthisratetheceorl\'sdeathmustbepaidforbythepriceofsometwenty-fourorthirtyoxen。Thesonsofavillanuswhohadbuttwooxenmusthavebeenundersometemptationtowishthattheirfatherwouldgethimselfkilledbyasolventthegn。VeryrarelyindeeddotheLegesnoticethesokemanormentionliberihominessoastoexcludethevillanifromthescopeofthatterm。31*DomesdayBookalsoonoccasioncandividemankindintoslavesandfreemen。ItdoessowhenittellsusthatonaGloucestershiremanorthereweretwelveserviwhomthelordhadmadefree。32*ItdoessoagainwhenittellsusthatinthecityofChesterthebishophadeightshillingsifafreeman，fourshillingsifaserf，didworkuponafestival。33*SoinadescriptionofthemanorofSouthPerrottinSomersetwereadthatacertaincustomisduetoitfromthemanorof\'Cruche\'Crewkerne，namelythateveryfreemanmustrenderonebloomofiron。Welookforthesefreemenat\'Cruche\'
andseenooneonthemanorbutvillani，bordarii，colibertiandservi。34*OftheCountofMortain\'smanorofBickenhallitiswrittenthateveryfreemanrendersabloomofironattheking\'smanorofCurry；butatBickenhallthereisnooneabovetheconditionofavillanus。35*Otherpassageswillsuggestthatthevillanussometimesisandsometimesisnotliberhomo。OnaNorfolkmanorwefindfreevilleins，liberivillani。36*
Forallthis，however，theremustbesomeveryimportantsenseinwhichthevillanusisnotfree。Inthesurveyoftheeasterncountiesheisseparatedfromtheliberihominesbythewholeclassofsochemanni。\'Inthismanor，\'wearetold，\'therewasatthattimeafreemanwithhalfahidewhohasnowbeenmadeoneofthevilleins。37*Attimesthewordfrancusisintroducedsoastosuggestforamomentthat，thoughthevilleinmaybeliberhomo，heisnotfrancus。38*Butthissuggestion，evenifitbemade，isnotmaintained，andtherearehundredsofpassageswhichimplicitlydenythatthevilleinisliberhomo。
Butthenthesepassagesdrawthelinebetweenfreedomandunfreedomatapointhighinthelegalscale，apointfarabovetheheadsofthevillani。AtleastforthemainpurposesofDomesdayBookthefreemanisamanwhoholdslandfreely。Letusobservewhatissaidofthemenwhohavebeenholdingmanors。Theformulawillvarysomewhatfromcountytocounty，butweshalloftenfindfourphrasesusedasequivalent，\'Xtenuitetliberhomofuit，\'\'Xtenuitutliberhomo，\'\'Xtenuitetcumterrasualiberfuit，\'\'Xtenuitlibere。\'39*Butthisfreeholdingimpliesahighdegreeoffreedom，freedomofakindthatwouldhaveshockedthelawyersofalaterage。
Withsomeregretswemustleavethepeasantsforawhileinorderthatwemayglanceatthehigherstrataofsociety。Wemaytakeitascertainthat，atleastintheeyesofWilliam\'sministers，theordinaryholderofamanorinthetimeoftheConfessorhadbeenholdingitundersubsomelord，ifnotofdesomelord。Butthentheclosenessoftheconnexionbetweenhimandhislord，thecharacteroftherelationbetweenlord，manandland，hadvariedmuchfromcasetocase。Nowthesemattersareoftenexpressedintermsofacalculusofpersonalfreedom。
Butletusbeginwithsomephraseswhichseemintelligibleenough。Themancan，orhecannot，\'sellorgivehisland\'；hecan，orhecannot，\'sellorgiveitwithoutthelicenceofhislord\'；40*hecansellitifhehasfirstofferedittohislords；hecansellitonpayinghislordtwoshillings。41*Thisseemsverysimple：——thelordcan，orasthecasemaybe
cannot，preventhistenantfromalienatingtheland；hehasarightofpreemptionorhehasarighttoexactafinewhenthereisachangeoftenants。Butthencomephrasesthatarelessinharmonywithourideaoffeudaltenure。Themancannotsellhisland\'awayfrom\'hislord，42*hecannotgiveorsellit\'outside\'acertainmanorbelongingtohislord，43*or，beingthetenantofsomechurch，hecannot\'separate\'hislandfromthechurch，44*orgiveorsellitoutsidethechurch。45*
Wehaveperhapstakenforgrantedundertheinfluenceoflaterlawthatanalienationwillnotimpairthelord\'srights，andwillbutgivehimanewinsteadofanoldtenant。Butitisnotofanymeresubstitutionsuchasthisthatthesemenoftheeleventhcenturyarethinking。Theyhaveitintheirmindsthatthemanmaywish，maybeable，utterlytowithdrawhislandfromthesphereofhislord\'srights。Thereforeinmanycasestheynotewithsomecarethattheman，thoughhecangiveorsellhisland，cannotaltogetherputanendtosuchrelationashasexistedbetweenthislandandhislord。Hecansell，butsomeofthelord\'srightswill\'remain，\'inparticularthelord\'s\'soke\'
overthelandforthepresentletussayhisjurisdictionoverthelandwillremain。46*Thepurchaserwillnotofnecessitybecomethe\'man\'ofthislord，willnotofnecessityowehimanyservitiumorconsuetudo，butwillcomeunderhisjurisdiction。47*Interchanginghoweverwiththesephrases，48*
wehaveotherswhichseemtopointtothesamesetofdistinctions，buttoexpressthemintermsofpersonalfreedom。
Themancan，orelsehecannot，withdrawfromhislord，goawayfromhislord，withdrawfromhislord\'smanor；hecanorhecannotwithdrawwithhisland；hecanorcannotgotoanotherlord，orgowhereverhepleases。49*Someofthesephraseswill，iftakenliterally，seemtosaythatthepersonsofwhomtheyareusedaretiedtothesoil；theycannotleavetheland，orthemanor，orthesoke。Probablyinsomeofthesecasesthebondbetweenmanandlordisaperpetualbondofhomageandfealty，andifthemanbreaksthatbondbyrefusingthedueobedienceorputtinghimselfunderanotherlord，heisguiltyofawrong。50*
Butofpursuinghimandcapturinghimandreducinghimtoservitudetherecanbenotalk。Manyofthesepersonswho\'cannotrecede\'aremenofwealthandrank，ofhighrankthatisrecognizedbylaw，theyareking\'sthegnsorthethegnsofthechurches，theyare\'twelve-hundredmen。\'51*However，itisnottheman\'spowertoleavehislordsomuchasthepowertoleavehislordandtakehislandwithhimthatthesephrasesbringtoournotice；orrathertheassumptionismadethatnoonewillwanttoleavehislordifhemustalsoleavehislandbehindhim。
Andthenthispoweroftakinglandfromthislordandbringingitunderanotherlordisconceivedasanindexofpersonalfreedom。
Thusweread：\'Thesemenweresofreethattheycouldgowheretheypleased。\'52*andagain，\'Foursokemenheldthisland，ofwhomthreewerefree，whilethefourthheldonehidebutcouldnotgiveorsellit。\'53*Notthatnooneiscalledaliberhomounlesshehasthispowerof\'receding\'fromhislord；farfromit；allisamatterofdegree；butthefreemanisfreerifhecan\'gotowhatlordhepleases，\'andoftenenoughthephrases\'X
tenuitetliberhomofuit，\'\'Xtenuitlibere，\'\'Xtenuitutliberhomo\'seemtohavenoothermeaningthanthis，thattheoccupantofthelandenjoyedthelibertyoftakingitwithhimwhithersoeverhewould。Thereforethereisnotautologyinsayingthattheholderofthelandwasathegnandafreeman，thoughofcoursethereisasense，therearemanysenses，inwhicheverythegnisfree。54*Allthistalkofthefreedomthatconsistsinchoosingalordandsubjectinglandtohimmaywellpuzzleus，foritpuzzledthemenofthetwelfthcentury。ThechroniclerofAbingdonabbeyhadtoexplainthatintheolddaysafreemancoulddostrangethings。55*
Comparisonsmaybeinstitutedbetweenthefreedomofonefreemanandthatofanother：——\'FivethegnsheldthislandofEarlEdwinandcouldgowiththeirlandwhithertheywould，andbelowthemtheyhadfoursoldiers，whowereasfreeasthemselves。\'56*Ahighdegreeoflibertyismarkedwhenwearetoldthat，\'Thesaidmenweresofreethattheycouldselltheirlandwithsokeandsakewherevertheywould。\'57*Butthereareyethigherdegreesofliberty。OfWorcestershireitiswritten，\'Whenthekinggoesuponamilitaryexpedition，ifanyonewhoissummonedstaysathome，thenifheissofreeamanthathehashissakeandsokeandcangowhitherhepleaseswithhisland，hewithallhislandshallbeintheking\'smercy。\'58*Thefreemanisthefreerifhehassokeandsake，ifhehasjurisdictionoverothermen。Exceptionalprivileges，immunitiesfromcommonburdens，arealreadyregardedas\'liberties。\'Thisisnonewthing；oftenenoughwhentheAnglo-Saxonlandbooksspeakoffreedomtheymeanprivilege。
Theideaoffreedomisequallyvagueandelasticif，insteadofapplyingittomen，weapplyittolandorthetenureofland。
Twobordariiarenowholdingasmallplot；\'theythemselveshelditfreelyinKingEdward\'sday。\'59*Herenodoubttherehasbeenafall；buthowdeepafallwecannotbesure。Tosaythataman\'slandisfreemayimplyfarmorefreedomthanfreeholdtenureimpliesinlatertimes；itmayimplythatthebondbetweenhimandhislord，ifindeedhehasalord，isofapurelypersonalcharacterandhardlygivesthelordanyholdovertheland。60*Butthisisnotall。Perfectfreedomisnotattainedsolongasthelandowesanysingledutytothestate。Oftenenough——butexactlyhowoftenitwerenoeasytasktotell——
theliberaterraofourrecordislandthathasbeenexemptedevenfromthedanegeld；itishighlyprivilegedland。61*Letusrememberthatatthepresentday，thoughthedefinitionoffreelandorfreeholdlandhaslongagobeenfixed，westillspeakasthoughfreelandmightbecomefreerifitwere\'freeofland-taxandtitherent-charge。\'
Ifnowwereturntothevillanusanddenythatheisliberhomoanddenyalsothatheisholdingfreely，weshallbesayinglittleandusingthelaxestofterms。Therearehalf-a-dozenquestionsthatwewouldfainaskabouthim，andtherewillbenoharminaskingthem，thoughDomesdayBookistaciturn。
Ishefreetoquithislordandhisland，orcanhebepursuedandcaptured？Noonewordcanbeobtainedinanswertothisquestion。WecanonlysaythatinHenryII\'sdaytheordinarypeasantwasregardedbytheroyalofficialsasascriptitius；thelandthatheoccupiedwassaidtobepartofhislord\'sdemesne；hischattelswerehislord\'s。62*Butthenthiswasconceivedtobe，atleastinsomedegree，theresultoftheNormanConquestandsubsequentrebellionsofthepeasantry。63*TothiswemayaddthatinoneofoursetsofLeges，theFrenchLeisofWilliamtheConqueror，therearecertainclauseswhichwouldbeofgreatimportancecouldwesupposethattheyhadanauthoritativeorigin，andwhichinanycaseareremarkableenough。Thenativuswhofliesfromthelandonwhichheisborn，letnoneretainhimorhischattels；ifthelordswillnotsendbackthesementotheirlandtheking\'sofficersaretodoit。64*Ontheotherhand，thetillersofthesoilarenottobeworkedbeyondtheirproperrent；theirlordmaynotremovethemfromtheirlandsolongastheyperformtheirrightservices。65*Whetherornowesupposethatinthewriter\'sopiniontheordinarypeasantwasanativusofnativiDomesdayBookhasnothingtosaywestillhavelawmorefavourabletothepeasantthanwasthecommonlawofBracton\'sage：——atillerwhodoeshisaccustomedserviceisnottobeejected；heisnotenantatwill。
HereafterweshallshowthattheEnglishpeasantsdidsufferbythesubstitutionofFrenchforEnglishlords。Butthequestionthatwehaveasked，sourgent，sofundamental，asitmayseemtous，isreallyonewhich，asthehistoryoftheRomancolonimightprove，canlongremainunanswered。Menmaybecomeeconomicallysodependentontheirlords，onwealthymastersandcreditors，thatthelegalquestionwhethertheycanquittheirservicehasnointerest。Whowishestoleavehisallandgoforthabeggarintotheworld？OnthewholewecanfindnoevidencewhateverthatthemenoftheConfessor\'sdaywhowereretrospectivelycalledvillaniweretiedtothesoil。CertainlyinNormantimesthetraditionwasheldthataccordingtotheoldlawthevillanusmightacquirefivehidesoflandandso\'thrivetothegn-right。\'66*
Ournextquestionshouldbewhetherhewassubjecttoseignorialjustice。Thisispartofamuchwiderquestionthatwemustfacehereafter，forseignorialjusticeshouldbetreatedasawhole。Wemusthereanticipateaconclusion，theproofofwhichwillcomebyandby，namely，thatthevillanussometimeswasandsometimeswasnotthejusticiableofacourtinwhichhislordorhislord\'sstewardpresided。Alldependedontheanswertothequestionwhetherhislordhad\'sakeandsoke。\'Hislordmighthavejusticiaryrightsoverallhistenants，ormerelyoverhisvillani，orhemighthavenojusticiaryrights，forasyet\'sakeandsoke\'wereintheking\'sgift，andthemerefactthatalordhad\'men\'ortenantsdidnotgivehimajurisdictionoverthem。
Withthisquestionisconnectedanother，namely，whetherthevillanihadalocusstandiinthenationalcourts。Wehaveseensixvillanitogetherwiththepriestundoubtedlyafreemanandthereeveofeachvillsummonedtoswearinthegreatinquest。67*OneofthemostfamousscenesrecordedbyourbookisthatinwhichWilliamofChernetclaimedaHampshiremanoronbehalfofHughdePortandproducedhiswitnessesfromamongthebestandeldestmenofthecounty；butPicot，thesheriffofCambridgeshire，whowasinpossession，repliedwiththetestimonyofvilleinsandmeanfolkandreeves，whowerewillingtosupporthiscasebyoathorbyordeal。68*Again，inNorfolk，RogerthesheriffclaimedahundredacresandfivevillaniandamillasbelongingtotheroyalmanorofBrainfort，andfivevillaniofthesaidmanortestifiedinhisfavourandofferedtomakewhateverproofanyonemightadjudgetothem，butthehalf-hundredofIpswichtestifiedthatthelandbelongedtoacertainchurchofStPeterthatWihtgarheld，andheofferedtoderaignthis。69*Certainlythisdoesnotlookasifvillaniwereexcludedfromthenationalmoots。Butarulewhichvaluedtheoathofasinglethegnashighlyastheoathofsixceorlswouldmaketheceorlbutapoorwitnessandtendtokeephimoutofcourt。70*Themenwhoareactiveinthecommunalcourts，whomakethejudgmentsthere，areusuallymenofthegnlyrank；buttogotocourtasadoomsmanisonething，togoasalitigantisanother。71*
Wemaynowapproachthequestionwhether，andifsoinwhatsense，thelandthatthevillanusoccupiesishisland。
ThroughoutDomesdayBookadistinctionissedulouslymaintainedbetweenthelandofthevilleinsterravillanorumandthelandthatthelordhasindominio。Letusnoticethisphrase。Onlythedemesnelanddoesthelordholdindominio，inownership。ThedelicateshadeofdifferencethatBractonwouldseebetweendominicumanddominiumisnotasyetmarked。Inlatertimesitbecamestrictlycorrecttosaythatthelordheldindemesneindominicosuonotonlythelandwhichheoccupiedbyhimselforhisservants，butalsothelandsheldofhimbyvilleintenure。72*ThisusageappearsveryplainlyintheDialogueontheExchequer。\'Youshallknow，\'saysthewriter，\'thatwegivethenamedemesnesdominicatothoselandsthatamancultivatesathisowncostorbyhisownlabour，andalsotothosewhicharepossessedinhisnamebyhisascriptitii；forbythelawofhiskingdomnotonlycantheseascriptitiiberemovedbytheirlordsfromthelandsthattheynowpossessandtransferredtootherplaces，buttheymaybesoldanddispersedatwill；sothatrightlyareboththeyandthelandswhichtheycultivateforthebehalfoftheirlordsaccountedtobedominia。\'73*Farotheristhenormal，ifnotinvariable，usageofDomesdayBook。Theterraevillanorum，thesilvaevillanorum，thepiscariaevillanorum，themolinivillanorum——forthevilleinshavewoodsandfisheriesandmills——thesethelorddoesnotholdindominio。74*Thenagaintheoxenofthevilleinsarecarefullydistinguishedfromtheoxenofthedemesne，whileoftenenoughtheyarenotdistinguishedfromtheoxenofthosewhoineverysensearefreetenants。75*Nowasregardsboththelandandtheoxenweseemputtothedilemmathateithertheybelongtothelordorelsetheybelongtothevilleins。Wecannotavoidthisdilemma，aswecaninlaterdays，bysayingthataccordingtothecommonlawtheownershipofthesethingsiswiththelord，whileaccordingtothecustomofthemanoritiswiththevilleins，forwebelievethatahall-moot，amanorialcourt，isstillasomewhatexceptionalinstitution。
Onthewholewecanhardlydoubtthatbothintheirlandandintheiroxenthevilleinshavehadrightsprotectedbylaw。Letusglanceoncemoreattheschemeofb髏andwerthathasbeeninforce。Avilleinisslain；themanb髏payabletohislordismarkedofffromthemuchheavierwergildthatispayabletohiskindred。Ifallthatavilleincouldhavebelongedtohislordsuchadistinctionwouldbeidle。