Duringthelast5years，thediminutionoftheagriculturalpercentageofthepopulationhasbeenyetmoremarked。Asearlyas1846，PierreDupontinhis\"Ouvriers\"sang:Malvêtus，logosdansdestrous，Souslescombles，danslesdécombres，NousvivonsavocleshibouxEtleslaffons，amisdesombres。[109]\"SixthandlastReportoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission，\"publishedattheendofMarch，1867。Itdealssolelywiththeagriculturalgang—system。
[110]\"Child。Emp。Comm。，VI。Report。\"Evidence173，p。37。
[111]Somegang—masters，however，haveworkedthemselvesuptothepositionoffarmersof500acres，orproprietorsofwholerowsofhouses。
[112]\"HalfthegirlsofLudfordhavebeenruinedbygoingout\"（ingangs）。l。
c。，p。6，§32。
[113]\"They（gangs）havegreatlyincreasedoflateyears。Insomeplacestheyaresaidtohavebeenintroducedatcomparativelylatedates;inotherswheregangs……havebeenknownformanyyears……moreandyoungerchildrenareemployedinthem。\"（l。c。，p。79，§174）。
[114]\"Smallfarmersneveremploygangs。\"\"Itisnotonpoorland，butonlandwhichaffordsrentoffrom40to50shillings，thatwomenandchildrenareemployedinthegreatestnumbers。\"（l。c。，pp。17，14。）
[115]TooneofthesegentlementhetasteofhisrentwassogratefulthatheindignantlydeclaredtotheCommissionofInquirythatthewholehubbubwasonlyduetothenameofthesystem。Ifinsteadof\"gang\"itwerecalled\"theAgriculturalJuvenileIndustrialSelf—supportingAssociation，\"everythingwouldbeallright。
[116]\"Gangworkischeaperthanotherwork;thatiswhytheyareemployed，\"
saysaformergang—master（l。c。，p。17，§14）。\"Thegang—systemisdecidedlythecheapestforthefarmer，anddecidedlytheworstforthechildren，\"saysafarmer（l。c。，p。16，§3。）
[117]\"Undoubtedlymuchoftheworknowdonebychildreningangsusedtobedonebymenandwomen。Moremenareoutofworknowwherechildrenandwomenareemployedthanformerly。\"（l。c。，p。43，n。202。）Ontheotherhand，\"thelabourquestioninsomeagriculturaldistricts，particularlythearable，isbecomingsoseriousinconsequenceofemigration，andthefacilityaffordedbyrailwaysforgettingtolargetownsthatI（the\"I\"
isthestewardofagreatlord）thinktheservicesofchildrenaremostindispensable，\"（l。c。，p。80，n。180。）Forthe\"labourquestion\"inEnglishagriculturaldistricts，differentlyfromtherestofthecivilisedworld，meansthelandlords’andfarmers’question，viz。，howisitpossible，despiteanalwaysincreasingexodusoftheagriculturalfolk，tokeepupasufficientrelativesurplus—populationinthecountry，andbymeansofitkeepthewagesoftheagriculturallabourerataminimum？
[118]The\"PublicHealthReport，\"whereindealingwiththesubjectofchildren’smortality，thegang—systemistreatedinpassing，remainsunknowntothepress，and，therefore，totheEnglishpublic。Ontheotherhand，thelastreportofthe\"Child。Empl。Comm。\"affordedthepresssensationalcopyalwayswelcome。WhilsttheLiberalpressaskedhowthefinegentlemenandladies，andthewell—paidclergyoftheStateChurch，withwhomLincolnshireswarms，couldallowsuchasystemtoariseontheirestates，undertheirveryeyes，theywhosendoutexpresslymissionstotheAntipodes，\"fortheimprovementofthemoralsofSouthSeaIslanders\"？themorerefinedpressconfineditselftoreflectionsonthecoarsedegradationoftheagriculturalpopulationwhoarecapableofsellingtheirchildrenintosuchslavery！
Undertheaccursedconditionstowhichthese\"delicate\"peoplecondemntheagriculturallabourer，itwouldnotbesurprisingifheatehisownchildren。Whatisreallywonderfulisthehealthyintegrityofcharacter，hehas，ingreatpart，retained。Theofficialreportsprovethattheparents，eveninthegangdistricts，loathethegang—system。\"Thereismuchintheevidencethatshowsthattheparentsofthechildrenwould，inmanyinstances，begladtobeaidedbytherequirementsofalegalobligation，toresistthepressureandthetemptationstowhichtheyareoftensubject。Theyareliabletobeurged，attimesbytheparishofficers，attimesbyemployers，underthreatsofbeingthemselvatdischarged，tobetakentoworkatanagewhen……schoolattendance……wouldbemanifestlytotheirgreateradvantage……Allthattimeandstrengthwasted;allthesufferingfromextraandunprofitablefatigueproducedtothelabourerandtohischildren;
everyinstanceinwhichtheparentmayhavetracedthemoralruinofhischildtofheunderminingofdelicacybytheover—crowdingofcottages，ortothecontaminatinginfluencesofthepublicgang，musthavebeensomanyincentivestofeelingsinthemindsofthelabouringpoorwhichcanbewellunderstood，andwhichitwouldbeneedlesstoparticularise。Theymustbeconsciousthatmuchbodilyandmentalpainhasthusbeeninflicteduponthemfromcausesforwhichtheywereinnowayanswerable;towhich，haditbeenintheirpower，theywouldhaveinnowayconsented;andagainstwhichtheywerepowerlesstostruggle。\"（l。c。，p。xx。，§82，andxxiii。，n。96。）
[119]PopulationofIreland，1801，5，319，867persons;1811，6，084，996;1821，6，869，544;1831，7，828，347;1841，8，222，664。
[120]Theresultwouldbefoundyetmoreunfavourableifwewentfurtherback。
Thus:Sheepin1865，3，688，742，butin1856，3，694，294。Pigsin1865，1，299，893，butin1858，1，409，883。
[121]Thedataofthetextareputtogetherfromthematerialsofthe\"AgriculturalStatistics，Ireland，GeneralAbstracts，Dublin，\"fortheyears1860，elseq。，and\"AgriculturalStatistics，Ireland。Tablesshowingtheestimatedaverageproduce，&c。，Dublin，1866。\"Thesestatisticsareofficial，andlaidbeforeParliamentannually。
Noteto2ndedition。Theofficialstatisticsfortheyear1872
show，ascomparedwith1871，adecreaseinareaundercultivationof134，915
acres。Anincreaseoccurredinthecultivationofgreencrops，turnips，mangold—wurzel，andthelike;adecreaseintheareaundercultivationforwheatof16，000acres;oats，14，000;barleyandrye，4，000;potatoes，66，632;flax，34，667;grass，clover，vetches，rape—seed，30，000。Thesoilundercultivationforwheatshowsforthelast5yearsthefollowingstagesofdecrease:？1868，285，000acres;1869，280，000;1870，259，000;1871，244，000;1872，228，000。For1872wefind，inroundnumbers，anincreaseof2，600horses，80，000hornedcattle，68，609sheep，andadecreaseof236，000pigs。
[122]ThetotalyearlyincomeunderScheduleD。isdifferentinthistablefromthatwhichappearsintheprecedingones，becauseofcertaindeductionsallowedbylaw。
[123]Iftheproductalsodiminishesrelativelyperacre，itmustnotbeforgottenthatforacenturyandahalfEnglandhasindirectlyexportedthesoilofIreland，withoutasmuchasallowingitscultivatorsthemeansformakinguptheconstituentsofthesoilthathadbeenexhausted。
[124]AsIrelandisregardedasthepromisedlandofthe\"principleofpopulation，\"
Th。Sadler，beforethepublicationofhisworkonpopulation，issuedhisfamousbook，\"Ireland，itsEvilsandtheirRemedies。\"2ndedition，London，1829。Here，bycomparisonofthestatisticsoftheindividualprovinces，andoftheindividualcountiesineachprovince，heprovesthatthemiserythereisnot，asMalthuswouldhaveit，inproportiontothenumberofthepopulation，butininverseratiotothis。
[125]Between1851and1874，thetotalnumberofemigrantsamountedto2，325，922。
[126]AccordingtoatableinMurphy’s\"IrelandIndustrial，PoliticalandSocial，\"
1870，94。6percent。ortheholdingsdonotreach100acres，5。4exceed100acres。
[127]\"ReportsfromthePoorLawInspectorsontheWagesofAgriculturalLabourersinDublin，\"1870。Seealso\"Agriculturallabourers（Ireland）。Return，etc。\"
8March，1861，London，1862。
[128]l。c。，pp。29，1。
[129]l。c。，p。12。
[130]l。c。，p。12。
[131]l。c。，p。25。
[132]l。c。，p。27。
[133]l。c。，p。25。
[134]l。c。，p。1。
[135]l。c。，pp。31，32。
[136]l。c。，p……25。
[137]l。c。，p。30。
[138]l。c。，pp。21，13。
[139]\"Rept。ofInsp。ofFact。，31stOct。，1866，\"p。96。
[140]Thetotalareaincludesalsopeat，bogs，andwasteland。
[141]Howthefamineanditsconsequenceshavebeendeliberatelymadethemostof，bothbytheindividuallandlordsandbytheEnglishlegislature，toforciblycarryouttheagriculturalrevolutionandtothinthepopulationofIrelanddowntotheproportionsatisfactorytothelandlords，IshallshowmorefullyinVol。III。ofthiswork，inthesectiononlandedproperty。
TherealsoIreturntotheconditionofthesmallfarmersandtheagriculturallabourers。Atpresent，onlyonequotation。NassauW。Seniorsays，withotherthings，inhisposthumouswork，\"Journals，ConversationsandEssaysrelatingtoIreland。\"2vols。London，1868;Vol。II。，p。282。\"Well，\"saidDr。G。，\"wehavegotourPoorLawanditisagreatinstrumentforgivingthevictorytothelandlords。Another，andastillmorepowerfulinstrumentisemigration……NofriendtoIrelandcanwishthewartobeprolonged[betweenthelandlordsandthesmallCelticfarmers]？stillless，thatitshouldendbythevictoryofthetenants。Thesooneritisover？thesoonerIrelandbecomesagrazingcountry，withthecomparativelythinpopulationwhichagrazingcountryrequires，thebetterforallclasses。\"TheEnglishCornLawsof1815securedIrelandthemonopolyofthefreeimportationofcornintoGreatBritain。Theyfavouredartificially，therefore，thecultivationofcorn。WiththeabolitionoftheCornLawsin1846，thismonopolywassuddenlyremoved。Apartfromallothercircumstances，thiseventalonewassufficienttogiveagreatimpulsetotheturningofIrisharableintopastureland，totheconcentrationofarms，andtotheevictionofsmallcultivators。AfterthefruitfulnessoftheIrishsoilhadbeenpraisedfrom1815to1846，andproclaimedloudlyasbyNatureherselfdestinedforthecultivationofwheat，Englishagronomists，economists，politicians，discoversuddenlythatitisgoodfornothingbuttoproduceforage。M。
LéoncedeLavergnehashastenedtorepeatthisontheothersideoftheChannel。Ittakesa\"serious\"man，àlaLavergne，tobecaughtbysuchchildishness。
ChapterTwenty—SixKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartVIII:
PrimativeAccumulationCHAPTERTWENTY—SIX:
THESECRETOFPRIMATIVEACCUMULATION
Wehaveseenhowmoneyischangedintocapital;howthroughcapitalsurplus—valueismade，andfromsurplus—valuemorecapital。Buttheaccumulationofcapitalpre—supposessurplus—value;surplus—valuepre—supposescapitalisticproduction;capitalisticproductionpresupposesthepre—existenceofconsiderablemassesofcapitalandoflabor—powerinthehandsofproducersofcommodities。
Thewholemovement，therefore，seemstoturninaviciouscircle，outofwhichwecanonlygetbysupposingaprimitiveaccumulation（previousaccumulationofAdamSmith）precedingcapitalisticaccumulation;anaccumulationnottheresultofthecapitalisticmodeofproduction，butitsstartingpoint。
ThisprimitiveaccumulationplaysinPoliticalEconomyaboutthesamepartasoriginalsinintheology。Adambittheapple，andthereuponsinfellonthehumanrace。Itsoriginissupposedtobeexplainedwhenitistoldasananecdoteofthepast。Intimeslonggone—bythereweretwosortsofpeople;one，thediligent，intelligent，and，aboveall，frugalelite;theother，lazyrascals，spendingtheirsubstance，andmore，inriotousliving。Thelegendoftheologicaloriginalsintellsuscertainlyhowmancametobecondemnedtoeathisbreadinthesweatofhisbrow;
butthehistoryofeconomicoriginalsinrevealstousthattherearepeopletowhomthisisbenomeansessential。Nevermind！Thusitcametopassthattheformersortaccumulatedwealth，andthelattersorthadatlastnothingtosellexcepttheirownskins。Andfromthisoriginalsindatesthepovertyofthegreatmajoritythat，despiteallitslabor，hasuptonownothingtosellbutitself，andthewealthofthefewthatincreasesconstantlyalthoughtheyhavelongceasedtowork。Suchinsipidchildishnessiseverydaypreachedtousinthedefenceofproperty。M。Thiers，e。g。，hadtheassurancetorepeatitwithallthesolemnityofastatesmantotheFrenchpeople，oncesospirituel。Butassoonasthequestionofpropertycropsup，itbecomesasacreddutytoproclaimtheintellectualfoodoftheinfantastheonethingfitforallagesandforalltagesofdevelopment。Inactualhistoryitisnotoriousthatconquest，enslavement，robbery，murder，brieflyforce，playthegreatpart。InthetenderannalsofPoliticalEconomy，theidyllicreignsfromtimeimmemorial。Rightand\"labor\"werefromalltimethesolemeansofenrichment，thepresentyearofcoursealwaysexcepted。Asamatteroffact，themethodsofprimitiveaccumulationareanythingbutidyllic。
Inthemselvesmoneyandcommoditiesarenomorecapitalthanarethemeansofproductionandofsubsistence。Theywanttransformingintocapital。Butthistransformationitselfcanonlytakeplaceundercertaincircumstancesthatcentreinthis，viz。，thattwoverydifferentkindsofcommodity—possessorsmustcomefacetofaceandintocontact，ontheonehand，theownersofmoney，meansofproduction，meansofsubsistence，whoareeagertoincreasethesumofvaluestheypossess，bybuyingotherpeople’slabor—power;ontheotherhand，freelaborers，thesellersoftheirownlabor—power，andthereforethesellersoflabor。Freelaborers，inthedoublesensethatneithertheythemselvesformpartandparcelofthemeansofproduction，asinthecaseofslaves，bondsmen，&c。，nordothemeansofproductionbelongtothem，asinthecaseofpeasant—proprietors;
theyare，therefore，freefrom，unencumberedby，anymeansofproductionoftheirown。Withthispolarizationofthemarketforcommodities，thefundamentalconditionsofcapitalistproductionaregiven。Thecapitalistsystempre—supposesthecompleteseparationofthelaborersfromallpropertyinthemeansbywhichtheycanrealizetheirlabor。Assoonascapitalistproductionisonceonitsownlegs，itnotonlymaintainsthisseparation，butreproducesitonacontinuallyextendingscale。Theprocess，therefore，thatclearsthewayforthecapitalistsystem，canbenoneotherthantheprocesswhichtakesawayfromthelaborerthepossessionofhismeansofproduction;aprocessthattransforms，ontheonehand，thesocialmeansofsubsistenceandofproductionintocapital，ontheother，theimmediateproducersintowage—laborers。Theso—calledprimitiveaccumulation，therefore，isnothingelsethanthehistoricalprocessofdivorcingtheproducerfromthemeansofproduction。Itappearsasprimitive，becauseitformsthepre—historicstageofcapitalandofthemodeofproductioncorrespondingwithit。
Theeconomicstructureofcapitalistsocietyhasgrownoutoftheeconomicstructureoffeudalsociety。Thedissolutionofthelattersetfreetheelementsoftheformer。
Theimmediateproducer，thelaborer，couldonlydisposeofhisownpersonafterhehadceasedtobeattachedtothesoilandceasedtobetheslaver，serf，orbondsmanofanother。Tobecomeafreeselleroflabor—power，whocarrieshiscommoditywhereverhefindsamarket，hemustfurtherhaveescapedfromtheregimeoftheguilds，theirrulesforapprenticesandjourneymen，andtheimpedimentsoftheirlaborregulations。Hence，thehistoricalmovementwhichchangestheproducersintowage—workers，appears，ontheonehand，astheiremancipationfromserfdomandfromthefettersoftheguilds，andthissidealoneexistsforourbourgeoishistorians。
But，ontheotherhand，thesenewfreedmenbecamesellersofthemselvesonlyaftertheyhadbeenrobbedofalltheirownmeansofproduction，andofalltheguaranteesofexistenceaffordedbytheoldfeudalarrangements。
Andthehistoryofthis，theirexpropriation，iswrittenintheannalsofmankindinlettersofbloodandfire。
Theindustrialcapitalists，thesenewpotentates，hadontheirpartnotonlytodisgracetheguildmatersofhandicrafts，butalsothefeudallords，thepossessorsofthesourcesofwealth。Inthisrespect，theirconquestofsocialpowerappearsasthefruitofavictoriousstrugglebothagainstfeudallordshipanditsrevoltingprerogatives，andagainsttheguildsandthefetterstheylaidonthefreedevelopmentofproductionandthefreeexploitationofmanbyman。Thechevaliersd’industrie，however，onlysucceededinsupplantingthechevaliersoftheswordbymakinguseofeventsofwhichtheythemselveswerewhollyinnocent。TheyhaverisenbymeansasvileasthosebywhichtheRomanfreedmanonceonatimemadehimselfthemasterofhispatronus。
Thestarting—pointofthedevelopmentthatgaverisetothewage—laboreraswellastothecapitalist，wastheservitudeofthelaborer。Theadvanceconsistedinachangeofformofthisservitude，inthetransformationoffeudalexploitationintocapitalistexploitation。Tounderstanditsmarch，weneednotgobackveryfar。Althoughwecomeacrossthefirstbeginningsofcapitalistproductionasearlyasthe14thor15thcentury，sporadically，incertaintownsoftheMediterranean，thecapitalisticeradatesfromthe16thcentury。Whereveritappears，theabolitionofserfdomhasbeenlongeffected，andthehighestdevelopmentofthemiddleages，theexistenceofsovereigntowns，hasbeenlongonthewane。
Inthehistoryofprimitiveaccumulation，allrevolutionsareepoch—makingthatactasleversforthecapitalclassincourseofformation;
but，aboveall，thosemomentswhengreatmassesofmenaresuddenlyandforciblytornfromtheirmeansofsubsistence，andhurledasfreeand\"unattached\"
proletariansonthelabormarket。Theexpropriationoftheagriculturalproducer，ofthepeasant，fromthesoil，isthebasisofthewholeprocess。
Thehistoryofthisexpropriation，indifferentcountries，assumesdifferentaspects，andrunsthroughitsvariousphasesindifferentordersofsuccession，ndatdifferentperiods。InEnglandalone，whichwetakeasourexample，hasittheclassicform。[1]
Footnotes[1]InItaly，wherecapitalisticproductiondevelopedearliest，thedissolutionofserfdomalsotookplaceearlierthanelsewhere。Theserfwasemancipatedinthatcountrybeforehehadacquiredanyprescriptiverighttothesoil。
Hisemancipationatoncetransformedhimintoafreeproletarian，who，moreover，foundhismasterreadyandwaitingforhiminthetowns，forthemostparthandeddownaslegaciesfromtheRomantime。Whentherevolutionoftheworld—market，abouttheendofthe15thcentury，annihilatedNorthernItaly’scommercialsupremacy，amovementinthereversedirectionsetin。
Thelaborersofthetownsweredrivenenmasseintothecountry，andgaveanimpulse，neverbeforeseen，tothepetiteculture，carriedonintheformofgardening。
ChapterTwenty—SevenKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartVIII:
PrimativeAccumulationCHAPTERTWENTY—SEVEN:
EXPROPRIATIONOFTHEAGRICULTURALPOPULATIONFROMTHELAND
InEngland，serfdomhadpracticallydisappearedinthelastpartofthe14thcentury。Theimmensemajorityofthepopulation[1]consistedthen，andtoastilllargerextent，inthe15thcentury，offreepeasantproprietors，whateverwasthefeudaltitleunderwhichtheirrightofpropertywashidden。Inthelargerseignorialdomains，theoldbailiff，himselfaserf，wasdisplacedbythefreefarmer。Thewage—labourersofagricultureconsistedpartlyofpeasants，whoutilisedtheirleisuretimebyworkingonthelargeestates，partlyofanindependentspecialclassofwage—labourers，relativelyandabsolutelyfewinnumbers。Thelatteralsowerepracticallyatthesame，timepeasantfarmers，since，besidestheirwages，theyhadallottedtothemarablelandtotheextentof4ormoreacres，togetherwiththeircottages，Besidesthey，withtherestofthepeasants，enjoyedtheusufructofthecommonland，whichgavepasturetotheircattle，furnishedthemwithtimber，fire—wood，turf，&c。[2]InallcountriesofEurope，feudalproductionischaracterisedbydivisionofthesoilamongstthegreatestpossiblenumberofsub—feudatories。
Themightofthefeudallord，likethatofthesovereign，dependednotonthelengthofhisrent—roll，butonthenumberofhissubjects，andthelatterdependedonthenumberofpeasantproprietors。[3]Although，therefore，theEnglishland，aftertheNormanConquest，wasdistributedingiganticbaronies，oneofwhichoftenincludedsome900oftheoldAnglo—Saxonlordships，itwasbestrewnwithsmallpeasantproperties，onlyhereandthereinterspersedwithgreatseignorialdomains。Suchconditions，togetherwiththeprosperityofthetownssocharacteristicofthe15thcentury，allowedofthatwealthofthepeoplewhichChancellorFortescuesoeloquentlypaintsinhis\"LaudeslegumAngliae\";butitexcludedthepossibilityofcapitalisticwealth。
Thepreludeoftherevolutionthatlaidthefoundationofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，wasplayedinthelastthirdofthe15th，andthefirstdecadeofthe16thcentury。Amassoffreeproletarianswashurledonthelabour—marketbythebreaking—upofthebandsoffeudalretainers，who，asSirJamesSteuartwellsays，\"everywhereuselesslyfilledhouseandcastle。\"Althoughtheroyalpower，itselfaproductofbourgeoisdevelopment，initsstrifeafterabsolutesovereigntyforciblyhastenedonthedissolutionofthesebandsofretainers，itwasbynomeansthesolecauseofit。Ininsolentconflictwithkingandparliament，thegreatfeudallordscreatedanincomparablylargerproletariatbytheforcibledrivingofthepeasantryfromtheland，towhichthelatterhadthesamefeudalrightasthelordhimself，andbytheusurpationofthecommonlands。TherapidriseoftheFlemishwoolmanufactures，andthecorrespondingriseinthepriceofwoolinEngland，gavethedirectimpulsetotheseevictions。Theoldnobilityhadbeendevouredbythegreatfeudalwars。Thenewnobilitywasthechildofitstime，forwhichmoneywasthepowerofallpowers。Transformationofarablelandintosheep—walkswas，therefore，itscry。Harrison，inhis\"DescriptionofEngland，prefixedtoHolinshed’sChronicles，\"describeshowtheexpropriationofsmallpeasantsisruiningthecountry。\"Whatcareourgreatencroachers？\"Thedwellingsofthepeasantsandthecottagesofthelabourerswererazedtothegroundordoomedtodecay。\"If，\"saysHarrison，\"theoldrecordsofeueriemanourbesoughtitwillsoonappearthatinsomemanourseventeene，eighteene，ortwentiehousesareshrunk……thatEnglandwasneuerlessfurnishedwithpeoplethanatthepresent……Ofcitiesandtowneseitherutterlydecaiedormorethanaquarterorhalfdiminished，thoughsomeonebealittleincreasedhereorthere;oftownespulleddowneforsheepe—walks，andnomorebutthelordshipsnowstandinginthem……Icouldsaiesomewhat。\"Thecomplaintsoftheseoldchroniclersarealwaysexaggerated，buttheyreflectfaithfullytheimpressionmadeoncontemporariesbytherevolutionintheconditionsofproduction。AcomparisonofthewritingsofChancellorFortescueandThomasMorerevealsthegulfbetweenthe15thand16thcentury。AsThorntonrightlyhasit，theEnglishworking—classwasprecipitatedwithoutanytransitionfromitsgoldenintoitsironage。
Legislationwasterrifiedatthisrevolution。Itdidnotyetstandonthatheightofcivilizationwherethe\"wealthofthenation\"（i。e。，theformationofcapital，andtherecklessexploitationandimpoverishingofthemassofthepeople）figureas，theultimaThuleofallstate—craft。
InhishistoryofHenryVII。，Baconsays:\"Inclosuresatthattime（1489）
begantobemorefrequent，wherebyarableland（whichcouldnotbemanuredwithoutpeopleandfamilies）wasturnedintopasture，whichwaseasilyridbyafewherdsmen;andtenanciesforyears，lives，andatwill（whereuponmuchoftheyeomanrylived）wereturnedintodemesnes。Thisbredadecayofpeople，and（byconsequence）adecayoftowns，churches，tithes，andthelike……Inremedyingofthisinconveniencetheking’swisdomwasadmirable，andtheparliament’satthattime……theytookacoursetotakeawaydepopulatingenclosures，anddepopulatingpasturage。\"AnActofHenryVII。，1489，cap。19，forbadthedestructionofall\"housesofhusbandry\"towhichatleast20acresoflandbelonged。ByanAct，25HenryVIII。，thesamelawwasrenewed。itrecites，amongotherthings，thatmanyfarmsandlargeflocksofcattle，especiallyofsheep，areconcentratedinthehandsofafewmen，wherebytherentoflandhasmuchrisenandtillagehasfallenoff，churchesandhouseshavebeenpulleddown，andmarvellousnumbersofpeoplehavebeendeprivedofthemeanswherewithtomaintainthemselvesandtheirfamilies。TheAct，therefore，ordainstherebuildingofthedecayedfarmsteads，andfixesaproportionbetweencornlandandpastureland，&c。AnActof1533
recitesthatsomeownerspossess24，000sheep，andlimitsthenumbertobeownedto2，000。[4]Thecryofthepeopleandthelegislationdirected，for150yearsafterHenryVII。，againsttheexpropriationofthesmallfarmersandpeasants，werealikefruitless。ThesecretoftheirinefficiencyBacon，withoutknowingit，revealstous。\"ThedeviceofKingHenryVII。，\"
saysBacon，inhis\"Essays，CivilandMoral，\"Essay29，\"wasprofoundandadmirable，inmakingfarmsandhousesofhusbandryofastandard;thatis，maintainedwithsuchaproportionoflanduntothemasmaybreedasubjecttoliveinconvenientplenty，andnoservilecondition，andtokeeptheploughinthehandsoftheownersandnotmerehirelings。\"[5]Whatthecapitalistsystemdemandedwas，ontheotherhand，adegradedandalmostservileconditionofthemassofthepeople。thetransformationofthemintomercenaries。andoftheirmeansoflabourintocapital。Duringthistransformationperiod，legislationalsostrovetoretainthe4acresoflandbythecottageoftheagriculturalwage—labourer，andforbadhimtotakelodgersintohiscottage。InthereignofJamesI。，1627，RogerCrockerofFrontMill，wascondemnedforhavingbuiltacottageonthemanorofFrontMillwithout4acresoflandattachedtothesameinperpetuity。
AslateasCharlesI。’sreign，1638，aroyalcommissionwasappointedtoenforcethecarryingoutoftheoldlaws，especiallythatreferringtothe4acresofland。EveninCromwell’stime，thebuildingofahousewithin4milesofLondonwasforbiddenunlessitwasendowedwith4acresofland。Aslateasthefirsthalfofthe18thcenturycomplaintismadeifthecottageoftheagriculturallabourerhasnotanadjunctofoneortwoacresoflaud。Nowadaysheisluckyifitisfurnishedwithalittlegarden，orifhemayrent，farawayfromhiscottage，afewroods。\"Landlordsandfarmers，\"saysDr。Hunter，\"workherehandinhand。
Afewacrestothecottagewouldmakethelabourerstooindependent。\"[6]
Theprocessofforcibleexpropriationofthepeoplereceivedinthe]6thcenturyanewandfrightfulimpulsefromtheReformation，andfromtheconsequentcolossalspoliationofthechurchproperty。TheCatholicchurchwas，atthetimeoftheReformation，feudalproprietorofagreatpartoftheEnglishland。Thesuppressionofthemonasteries，&c。，hurledtheirinmatesintotheproletariat。Theestatesofthechurchweretoalargeextentgivenawaytorapaciousroyalfavourites，orsoldatanominalpricetospeculatingfarmersandcitizens，whodroveout，enmasse，thehereditarysub—tenantsandthrewtheirholdingsintoone。Thelegallyguaranteedpropertyofthepoorerfolkinapartofthechurch’stitheswastacitlyconfiscated。[7]\"Pauperubiquejacet，\"criedQueenElizabeth，afterajourneythroughEngland。
Inthe43rdyearofherreignthenationwasobligedtorecognisepauperismofficiallybytheintroductionofapoor—rate。\"Theauthorsofthislawseemtohavebeenashamedtostatethegroundsofit，for[contrarytotraditionalusage]ithasnopreamblewhatever。\"[8]Bythe16thofCharlesI。，ch。4，itwasdeclaredperpetual，andinfactonlyin1834didittakeanewandharsherform。[9]TheseimmediateresultsoftheReformationwerenotitsmostlastingones。Thepropertyofthechurchformedthereligiousbulwarkofthetraditionalconditionsoflandedproperty。Withitsfallthesewerenolongertenable。[10]
Eveninthelastdecadeofthe17thcentury，theyeomanry，theclassofindependentpeasants，Weremorenumerousthantheclassoffarmers。
TheyhadformedthebackboneofCromwell’sstrength，and，evenaccordingtotheconfessionofMacaulay，stoodinfavourablecontrasttothedrunkensquiresandtotheirservants，thecountryclergy，whohadtomarrytheirmasters’cast—offmistresses。About1750，theyeomanryhaddisappeared，[11]andsohad，inthelastdecadeofthe18thcentury，thelasttraceofthecommonlandoftheagriculturallabourer。Weleaveononesideherethepurelyeconomiccausesoftheagriculturalrevolution。Wedealonlywiththeforciblemeansemployed。
AftertherestorationoftheStuarts，thelandedproprietorscarried，bylegalmeans，anactofusurpation，effectedeverywhereontheContinentwithoutanylegalformality。Theyabolishedthefeudaltenureofland，i。e。，theygotridofallitsobligationstotheState，\"indemnified\"
theStatebytaxesonthepeasantryandtherestofthemassofthepeople，vindicatedforthemselvestherightsofmodemprivatepropertyinestatestowhichtheyhadonlyafeudaltitle，and，finally，passedthoselawsofsettlement，which，mulatismulandis，hadthesameeffectontheEnglishagriculturallabourer，astheedictoftheTartarBorisGodunofontheRussianpeasantry。
The\"gloriousRevolution\"broughtintopower，alongwithWilliamofOrange，thelandlordandcapitalistappropriatorsofsurplus—value。[12]Theyinauguratedthenewerabypractisingonacolossalscaletheftsofstatelands，theftsthathadbeenhithertomanagedmoremodestly。Theseestatesweregivenaway，soldataridiculousfigure，orevenannexedtoprivateestatesbydirectseizure。[13]Allthishappenedwithouttheslightestobservationoflegaletiquette。
TheCrownlandsthusfraudulentlyappropriated，togetherwiththerobberyoftheChurchestates，asfarasthesehadnotbeenlostagainduringtherepublicanrevolution，formthebasisoftheto—dayprincelydomainsoftheEnglisholigarchy。[14]Thebourgeoiscapitalistsfavouredtheoperationwiththeview，amongothers，topromotingfreetradeinland，toextendingthedomainofmodernagricultureonthelargefarm—system，andtoincreasingtheirsupplyofthefreeagriculturalproletariansreadytohand。Besides，thenewlandedaristocracywasthenaturalallyofthenewbankocracy，ofthenewly—hatchedhautefinance，andofthelargemanufacturers，thendependingonprotectiveduties。TheEnglishbourgeoisieactedforitsowninterestquiteaswiselyasdidtheSwedishbourgeoisiewho，reversingtheprocess，handinhandwiththeireconomicallies，thepeasantry，helpedthekingsintheforcibleresumptionoftheCrownlandsfromtheoligarchy。Thishappenedsince1604underCharlesX。andCharlesXI。
Communalproperty？alwaysdistinctfromtheStatepropertyjustdealtwith？wasanoldTeutonicinstitutionwhichlivedonundercoveroffeudalism。