Wehaveseenhowtheforcibleusurpationofthis，generallyaccompaniedbytheturningofarableintopastureland，beginsattheendofthe15thandextendsintothe16thcentury。But，atthattime，theprocesswascarriedonbymeansofindividualactsofviolenceagainstwhichlegislation，forahundredandfiftyyears，foughtinvain。Theadvancemadebythe18thcenturyshowsitselfinthis，thatthelawitsep;becomesnowtheinstrumentofthetheftofthepeople’sland，althoughthelargefarmersmakeuseoftheirlittleindependentmethodsaswell。[15]TheparliamentaryformoftherobberyisthatofActsforenclosuresofCommons，inotherwords，decreesbywhichthelandlordsgrantthemselvesthepeople’slandasprivateproperty，decreesofexpropriationofthepeople。SirF。M。Edenrefuteshisowncraftyspecialpleading，inwhichhetriestorepresentcommunalpropertyastheprivatepropertyofthegreatlandlordswhohavetakentheplaceofthefeudallords，whenhe，himself，demandsa\"generalActofParliamentfortheenclosureofCommons\"
（admittingtherebythataparliamentarycoupd’étatisnecessaryforitstransformationintoprivateproperty），andmoreovercallsonthelegislaturefortheindemnificationfortheexpropriatedpoor。[16]
Whilsttheplaceoftheindependentyeomanwastakenbytenantsatwill，smallfarmersonyearlyleases，aservilerabbledependentonthepleasureofthelandlords，thesystematicrobberyoftheCommunallandshelpedespecially，nexttothetheftoftheStatedomains，toswellthoselargefarms，thatwerecalledinthe18thcenturycapitalfarms[17]ormerchantfarms，[18]andto\"setfree\"theagriculturalpopulationasproletariansformanufacturingindustry。
The18thcentury，however，didnotyetrecogniseasfullyasthe19th，theidentitybetweennationalwealthandthepovertyofthepeople。Hencethemostvigorouspolemic，intheeconomicliteratureofthattime，onthe\"enclosureofcommons。\"Fromthemassofmaterialsthatliebeforeme，Igiveafewextractsthatwillthrowastronglightonthecircumstancesofthetime。\"InseveralparishesofHertfordshire，\"writesoneindignantperson，\"24farms，numberingontheaverage50—150acres，havebeenmeltedupintothreefarms。\"[19]\"InNorthamptonshireandLeicestershiretheenclosureofcommonlandshastakenplaceonaverylargescale，andmostofthenewlordships，resultingfromtheenclosure，havebeenturnedintopasturage，inconsequenceofwhichmanylordshipshavenotnow50acresploughedyearly，inwhich1，500wereploughedformerly。Theruinsofformerdwelling—houses，barns，stables，&c。，\"arethesoletracesoftheformerinhabitants。\"Anhundredhousesandfamilieshaveinsomeopen—fieldvillagesdwindledtoeightorten……
Thelandholdersinmostparishesthathavebeenenclosedonly15or20
years，areveryfewincomparisonofthenumberswhooccupiedthemintheiropen—fieldstate。Itisnouncommonthingfor4or5wealthygrazierstoengrossalargeenclosedlordshipwhichwasbeforeinthehandsof20or30farmers，andasmanysmallertenantsandproprietors。Alltheseareherebythrownoutoftheirlivingswiththeirfamiliesandmanyotherfamilieswhowerechieflyemployedandsupportedbythem。\"[20]Itwasnotonlythelandthatlaywaste，butoftenlandcultivatedeitherincommonorheldunderadefiniterentpaidtothecommunity，thatwasannexedbytheneighbouringlandlordsunderpretextofenclosure。\"Ihavehereinviewenclosuresofopenfieldsandlandsalreadyimproved。Itisacknowledgedbyeventhewritersindefenceofenclosuresthatthesediminishedvillagesincreasethemonopoliesoffarms，raisethepricesofprovisions，andproducedepopulation……andeventheenclosureofwastelands（asnowcarriedon）bearshardonthepoor，bydeprivingthemofapartoftheirsubsistence，andonlygoestowardsincreasingfarmsalreadytoolarge。\"[21]\"When，\"saysDr。Price，\"thislandgetsintothehandsofafewgreatfarmers，theconsequencemustbethatthelittlefarmers\"（earlierdesignatedbyhim\"amultitudeoflittleproprietorsandtenants，whomaintainthemselvesandfamiliesbytheproduceofthegroundtheyoccupybysheepkeptonacommon，bypoultry，hogs，&c。，andwhothereforehavelittleoccasiontopurchaseanyofthemeansofsubsistence\"）\"willbeconvertedintoabodyofmenwhoearntheirsubsistencebyworkingforothers，andwhowillbeunderanecessityofgoingtomarketforalltheywant……Therewill，perhaps，bemorelabour，becausetherewillbemorecompulsiontoit……
Townsandmanufactureswillincrease，becausemorewillbedriventotheminquestofplacesandemployment。Thisisthewayinwhichtheengrossingoffarmsnaturallyoperates。Andthisisthewayinwhich，formanyyears，ithasbeenactuallyoperatinginthiskingdom。\"[22]Hesumsuptheeffectoftheenclosuresthus:\"Uponthewhole，thecircumstancesofthelowerranksofmenarealteredinalmosteveryrespectfortheworse。Fromlittleoccupiersofland，theyarereducedtothestateofday—labourersandhirelings;and，atthesametime，theirsubsistenceinthatstatehasbecomemoredifficult。\"[23]Infact，usurpationofthecommonlandsandtherevolutioninagricultureaccompanyingthis，toldsoacutelyontheagriculturallabourersthat，evenaccordingtoEden，between1765and1780，theirwagesbegantofallbelowtheminimum，andtobesupplementedbyofficialpoor—lawrelief。
Theirwages，hesays，\"werenotmorethanenoughfortheabsolutenecessariesoflife。\"
LetushearforamomentadefenderofenclosuresandanopponentofDr。Price。\"Notisitaconsequencethattheremustbedepopulation，becausemenarenotseenwastingtheirlabourintheopenfield……If，byconvertingthelittlefarmersintoabodyofmenwhomustworkforothers，morelabourisproduced，itisanadvantagewhichthenation\"（towhich，ofcourse，the\"converted\"onesdonotbelong）\"shouldwishfor……theproducebeinggreaterwhentheirjointlaboursareemployedononefarm，therewillbeasurplusformanufactures，andbythismeansmanufactures，oneoftheminesofthenation，willincrease，inproportiontothequantityofcornproduced。\"[24]
Thestoicalpeaceofmindwithwhichthepoliticaleconomistregardsthemostshamelessviolationofthe\"sacredrightsofproperty\"andthegrossestactsofviolencetopersons，assoonastheyarenecessarytolaythefoundationsofthecapitalisticmodeofproduction，isshownbySirF。M。Eden，philanthropistandtorytoboot。Thewholeseriesofthefts，outrages，andpopularmisery，thataccompaniedtheforcibleexpropriationofthepeople，fromthelastthirdofthe15thtotheendofthe18thcentury，leadhimmerelytothecomfortableconclusion:\"Thedueproportionbetweenarablelandandpasturehadtobeestablished。Duringthewholeofthe14thandthegreaterpartofthe15thcentury，therewasoneacreofpastureto2，3，andeven4ofarableland。Aboutthemiddleofthe16thcenturytheproportionwaschangedof2acresofpastureto2，lateron，of2acresofpasturetooneofarable，untilatlastthejustproportionof3acresofpasturetooneofarablelandwasattained。\"
Inthe19thcentury，theverymemoryoftheconnexionbetweentheagriculturallabourerandthecommunalpropertyhad，ofcourse，vanished。Tosaynothingofmorerecenttimes，havetheagriculturalpopulationreceivedafarthingofcompensationforthe3，511，770acresofcommonlandwhichbetween1801
and1831werestolenfromthemandbyparliamentarydevicespresentedtothelandlordsbythelandlords？
Thelastprocessofwholesaleexpropriationoftheagriculturalpopulationfromthesoilis，finally，theso—calledclearingofestates，i。e。，thesweepingmenoffthem。AlltheEnglishmethodshithertoconsideredculminatedin\"clearing。\"Aswesawinthepictureofmodernconditionsgiveninaformerchapter，wheretherearenomoreindependentpeasantstogetridof，the\"clearing\"ofcottagesbegins;sothattheagriculturallabourersdonotfindonthesoilcultivatedbythemeventhespotnecessaryfortheirownhousing。Butwhat\"clearingofestates\"reallyandproperlysignifies，welearnonlyinthepromisedlandofmodernromance，theHighlandsofScotland。Theretheprocessisdistinguishedbyitssystematiccharacter，bythemagnitudeofthescaleonwhichitiscarriedoutatoneblow（inIrelandlandlordshavegonetothelengthofsweepingawayseveralvillagesatonce;inScotlandareasaslargeasGermanprincipalitiesaredealtwith），finallybythepeculiarformofproperty，underwhichtheembezzledlandswereheld。
TheHighlandCeltswereorganisedinclans，eachofwhichwastheownerofthelandonwhichitwassettled。Therepresentativeoftheclan，itschiefor\"greatman，\"wasonlythetitularownerofthisproperty，justastheQueenofEnglandisthetitularownerofallthenationalsoil。
WhentheEnglishgovernmentsucceededinsuppressingtheintestinewarsofthese\"greatmen，\"andtheirconstantincursionsintotheLowlandplains，thechiefsoftheclansbynomeansgaveuptheirtime—honoredtradeasrobbers;theyonlychangeditsform。Ontheirownauthoritytheytransformedtheirnominalrightintoarightofprivateproperty，andasthisbroughtthemintocollisionwiththeirclansmen，resolvedtodrivethemoutbyopenforce。\"AkingofEnglandmightaswellclaimtodrivehissubjectsintothesea，\"saysProfessorNewman。[25]Thisrevolution，whichbeganinScotlandafterthelastrisingofthefollowersofthePretender，canbefollowedthroughitsfirstphasesinthewritingsofSirJamesSteuart[26]andJamesAnderson。[27]Inthe18thcenturythehunted—outGaelswereforbiddentoemigratefromthecountry，withaviewtodrivingthembyforcetoGlasgowandothermanufacturingtowns。[28]Asanexampleofthemethod[29]obtaininginthe19thcentury，the\"clearing\"madebytheDuchessofSutherlandwillsufficehere。Thisperson，wellinstructedineconomy，resolved，onenteringuponhergovernment，toeffectaradicalcure，andtoturnthewholecountry，whosepopulationhadalreadybeen，byearlierprocessesofthelikekind，reducedto15，000，intoasheep—walk。
From1814to1820these15，000inhabitants，about3，000families，weresystematicallyhuntedandrootedout。Alltheirvillagesweredestroyedandburnt，alltheirfieldsturnedintopasturage。Britishsoldiersenforcedthiseviction，andcametoblowswiththeinhabitants。Oneoldwomanwasburnttodeathintheflamesofthehut，whichsherefusedtoleave。Thusthisfineladyappropriated794，000acresoflandthathadfromtimeimmemorialbelongedtotheclan。Sheassignedtotheexpelledinhabitantsabout6，000acresonthesea—shore？2acresperfamily。The6，000acreshaduntilthistimelainwaste，andbroughtinnoincometotheirowners。TheDuchess，inthenobilityofherheart，actuallywentsofarastolettheseatanaveragerentof2s。6d。peracretotheclansmen，whoforcenturieshadshedtheirbloodforherfamily。Thewholeofthestolenclanlandshedividedinto29greatsheepfarms，eachinhabitedbyasinglefamily，forthemostpartimportedEnglishfarm—servants。Intheyear1835the15，000Gaelswerealreadyreplacedby131，000sheep。Theremnantoftheaboriginesflungonthesea—shoretriedtolivebycatchingfish。Theybecameamphibiousandlived，asanEnglishauthorsays，halfonlandandhalfonwater，andwithalonlyhalfonboth;[30]
ButthebraveGaelsmustexpiateyetmorebitterlytheiridolatry，romanticandofthemountains，forthe\"greatmen\"oftheclan。Thesmelloftheirfishrosetothenosesofthegreatmen。Theyscentedsomeprofitinit，andletthesea—shoretothegreatfishmongersofLondon。ForthesecondtimetheGaelswerehuntedout。[31]
But，finally，partofthesheep—walksareturnedintodeerpreserves。
EveryoneknowsthattherearenorealforestsinEngland。Thedeerintheparksofthegreataredemurelydomesticcattle，fatasLondonaldermen。
Scotlandisthereforethelastrefugeofthe\"noblepassion。\"\"IntheHighlands，\"
saysSomersin1848，\"newforestsarespringinguplikemushrooms。Here，ononesideofGaick，youhavethenewforestofGlenfeshie;andthereontheotheryouhavethenewforestofArdverikie。InthesamelineyouhavetheBlackMount，animmensewastealsorecently。erected。Fromeasttowest？fromtheneighbourhoodofAberdeentothecragsofOban？youhavenowacontinuouslip;offorests;whileinotherpartsoftheHighlandstherearethenewforestsofLochArchaig，Glengarry，Glenmoriston，&c。Sheepwereintroducedintoglenswhichhadbeentheseatsofcommunitiesofsmallfarmers;andthelatterweredriventoseeksubsistenceoncoarserandmoresteriletracksofsoil。
Nowdeeraresupplantingsheep;andtheseareoncemoredispossessingthesmalltenants，whowillnecessarilybedrivendownuponstillcoarserlandandtomoregrindingpenury。Deer—forests[32]andthepeoplecannotco—exist。Oneorotherofthetwomustyield。Lettheforestsheincreasedinnumberandextentduringthenextquarterofacentury，astheyhavebeeninthelast，andtheGaelswillperishfromtheirnativesoil……ThismovementamongtheHighlandproprietorsiswithsomeamatterofambition……withsomeloveofsport……whileothers，ofamorepracticalcast，followthetradeindeerwithaneyesolelytoprofit。Foritisafact，thatamountainrangelaidoutinforestis，inmanycases，moreprofitabletotheproprietorthanwhenletasasheep—walk……Thehuntsmanwhowantsadeer—forestlimitshisoffersbynoothercalculationthantheextentofhispurse……SufferingshavebeeninflictedintheHighlandsscarcelylessseverethanthoseoccasionedbythepolicyoftheNormankings。Deerhavereceivedextendedranges，whilemenhavebeenhuntedwithinanarrowerandstillnarrowercircle……Oneafteronethelibertiesofthepeoplehavebeenclovendown……Andtheoppressionsaredailyontheincrease……Theclearanceanddispersionofthepeopleispursuedbytheproprietorsasasettledprinciple，asanagriculturalnecessity，justastreesandbrushwoodareclearedfromthewastesofAmericaorAustralia;
andtheoperationgoesoninaquiet，businesslikeway，&c。\"[33]
Thespoliationofthechurch’sproperty，thefraudulentalienationoftheStatedomains，therobberyofthecommonlands，theusurpationoffeudalandclanproperty，anditstransformationintomodernprivatepropertyundercircumstancesofrecklessterrorism，werejustsomanyidyllicmethodsofprimitiveaccumulation。Theyconqueredthefieldforcapitalisticagriculture，madethesoilpartandparcelofcapital，andcreatedforthetownindustriesthenecessarysupplyofa\"free\"andoutlawedproletariat。
Footnotes[1]\"Thepettyproprietorswhocultivatedtheirownfieldswiththeirownhands，andenjoyedamodestcompetence……thenformedamuchmoreimportantpartofthenationthanatpresent。Ifwemaytrustthebeststatisticalwritersofthatage，notlessthan160，000proprietorswho，withtheirfamilies，musthavemadeupmorethanaseventhofthewholepopulation，derivedtheirsubsistencefromlittlefreeholdestates。Theaverageincomeofthesesmalllandlords……wasestimatedatbetween£60and£70ayear。Itwascomputedthatthenumberofpersonswhotilledtheirownlandwasgreaterthanthenumberofthosewhofarmedthelandofothers。\"Macaulay:
\"HistoryofEngland，\"10thed，1854，I。pp。333，334’。Eveninthelastthirdofthe17thcentury，4/5oftheEnglishpeoplewereagricultural。
（l。c。，p。413。）IquoteMacaulay，becauseassystematicfalsifierofhistoryheminimisesasmuchaspossiblefactsofthiskind。
[2]Wemustneverforgetthateventheserfwasnotonlytheowner，ifbutatribute—payingowner，ofthepieceoflandattachedtohishouse，butalsoaco—possessorofthecommonland。\"Lepaysan（inSilesia，underFrederickII。）estserf。\"Nevertheless，theseserfspossesscommonlands。\"onn’apaspuencoreengagerlesSilésiensaupartagedescommunes，tandisquedanslaNouvelleMarche，iin’yaguàredevillageoú
cepartagenesoitexécutéavecleplusgrandsuccés。\"
（Mirabeau:\"DelaMonarchicPrussienne。\"Londres，1788，t。ii，pp。125，126。）
[3]Japan，withitspurelyfeudalorganisationoflandedpropertyanditsdevelopedpetiteculture，givesamuchtruerpictureoftheEuropeanmiddleagesthanallourhistorybooks，dictatedastheseare，forthemostpart，bybourgeoisprejudices。Itisveryconvenienttobe\"liberal\"attheexpenseofthemiddleages。
[4]Inhis\"Utopia，\"ThomasMoresays，thatinEngland\"yourshepethatwerewonttobesomekeandtame，andsosmaleaters，now，asIhearesaye，becomesogreatdevourersandsowyldethattheyeateup，andswallowdowne，theverymenthemselfes。\"\"Utopia，\"transl。byRobinson，ed。，Arber，Lond。，1869，p。41。
[5]Baconshowstheconnexionbetweenafree，well—to—dopeasantryandgoodinfantry。\"Thisdidwonderfullyconcernthemightandmannerhoodofthekingdomtohavefarmsasitwereofastandardsufficienttomaintainanablebodyoutofpenury，anddidineffectamortiseagreatpartofthelandsofthekingdomuntotheholdandoccupationoftheyeomanryormiddlepeople，ofaconditionbetweengentlemen，andcottagersandpeasants……
Forithathbeenheldbythegeneralopinionofmenofbestjudgmentinthewars……thattheprincipalstrengthofanarmyconsistethintheinfantryorfoot。Andtomakegoodinfantryitrequirethmenbred，notinaservileorindigentfashion，butinsomefreeandplentifulmanner。Therefore，ifastaterunmosttonoblemenandgentlemen，andthatthehusbandmanandploughmenbebutastheirworkfolkandlabourers，orelsemerecottagers（whicharebuthous’dbeggars），youmayhaveagoodcavalry，butnevergoodstablebandsoffoot……AndthisistobeseeninFrance，andItaly，andsomeotherpartsabroad，whereineffectallisnoblesseorpeasantry……insomuchthattheyareinforcedtoemploymercenarybandsofSwitzersandthelike，fortheirbattalionsoffoot;wherebyalsoitcomestopassthatthosenationshavemuchpeopleandfewsoldiers。\"（\"TheReignofHenryVll。\"VerbatimreprintfromKennet’sEngland。Ed。1719。Lond。，1870，p。
308。）
[6]Dr。Hunter，l。c。，p。134。\"Thequantityoflandassigned（intheoldlaws）
wouldnowbejudgedtoogreatforlabourers，andratheraslikelytoconvertthemintosmallfarmers。\"（GeorgeRoberts:\"TheSocialHistoryofthePeopleoftheSouthernCountiesofEnglandinPastCenturies。\"Lond。，1856，pp。
184—185。）
[7]\"Therightofthepoortoshareinthetithe，isestablishedbythetenourofancientstatutes。\"（Tuckett，l。c。，Vol。II。，pg。804—805。）
[8]WilliamCobbett:\"AHistoryoftheProtestantReformation，\"§471。
[9]The\"spirit\"ofProtestantismmaybeseenfromthefollowing，amongotherthings。InthesouthofEnglandcertainlandedproprietorsandwell—to—dofarmersputtheirheadstogetherandpropoundedtenquestionsastotherightinterpretationofthepoor—lawofElizabeth。Thesetheylaidbeforeacelebratedjuristofthattime，SergeantSnigge（laterajudgeunderJamesI。）forhisopinion。\"Question9？SomeofthemorewealthyfarmersintheparishhavedevisedaskilfulmodebywhichallthetroubleofexecutingthisAct（the43rdofElizabeth）mightbeavoided。Theyhaveproposedthatwe，shallerectaprisonintheparish，andthengivenoticetotheneighbourhood，thatifanypersonsaredisposedtofarmthepoorofthisparish，theydogiveinsealedproposals，onacertainday，ofthelowestpriceatwhichtheywilltakethemoffourhands;andthattheywillbeauthorisedtorefusetoanyoneunlesshebeshutupintheaforesaidprison。Theproposersofthisplanconceivethattherewillbefoundintheadjoiningcounties，persons，who，beingunwillingtolabourandnotpossessingsubstanceorcredittotakeafarmorship，soastolivewithoutlabour，maybeinducedtomakeaveryadvantageousoffertotheparish。Ifanyofthepoorperishunderthecontractor’scare，thesinwilllieathisdoor，astheparishwillhavedoneitsdutybythem。Weare，however，apprehensivethatthepresentAct（43rdofElizabeth）willnotwarrantaprudentialmeasureofthiskind;butyouaretolearnthattherestofthefreeholders。ofthecounty，andoftheadjoiningcountyofB，willveryreadilyjoinininstructingtheirmemberstoproposeanActtoenabletheparishtocontractwithapersontolockupandworkthepoor;andtodeclarethatifanypersonshallrefusetobesolockedupandworked，heshallbeentitledtonorelief。This，itis。hoped，willpreventpersonsindistressfromwantingrelief，andbethemeansofkeepingdownparishes。\"（R。Blakey:
\"TheHistoryofPoliticalLiteraturefromtheEarliestTimes。\"。Lond。，1855，Vol。II。，pp。84—85。）In，Scotland，theabolitionofserfdomtookplacesomecenturieslaterthaninEngland。Evenin1698，FletcherofSaltoun，declaredintheScotchparliament，\"ThenumberofbeggarsinScotlandisreckonedatnotlessthan200，000。TheonlyremedythatI，arepublicanonprinciple，cansuggest，istorestoretheoldstateofserfdom，tomakeslavesofallthosewhoareunabletoprovidefortheirownsubsistence。\"
Eden，l。c。，BookI。，ch。1，pp。60—61，says，\"Thedecreaseofvillenageseemsnecessarilytohavebeentheeraoftheoriginofthepoor。Manufacturesandcommercearethetwoparentsofournationalpoor。\"Eden，likeourScotchrepublicanonprinciple，errsonlyinthis:nottheabolitionofvillenage，buttheabolitionofthepropertyoftheagriculturallabourerinthesoilmadehimaproletarian，andeventuallyapauper。InFrance，wheretheexpropriationwaseffectedinanotherway，theordonnanceofMoulins，1566，andtheEdictof1656，correspondtotheEnglishpoor—laws。
[10]ProfessorRogers，althoughformerlyProfessorofPoliticalEconomyintheUniversityofOxford，thehotbedofProtestantorthodoxy，inhisprefacetothe\"HistoryofAgriculture\"laysstressonthefactofthepauperisationofthemassofthepeoplebytheReformation。
[11]\"ALettertoSir。T。C。Bunbury，Bart。，ontheHighPriceofProvisions。
ByaSuffolkGentleman。\"Ipswich，1795，p。4。Eventhefanaticaladvocateofthesystemoflargefarms，theauthorofthe\"InquiryintotheConnexionbetweenthePresentPriceofProvisions，\"London，1773，p。139，says:\"I
mostlamentthelossofouryeomanry，thatsetofmenwhoreallykeptuptheindependenceofthisnation;andsorryIamtoseetheirlandsnowinthehandsofmonopolisinglords，tenantedouttosmallfarmers，whoholdtheirleasesonsuchconditionsastobelittlebetterthanvassalsreadytoattendasummonsoneverymischievousoccasion。\"
[12]Ontheprivatemoralcharacterofthisbourgeoishero，amongotherthings:
\"ThelargegrantoflandsinIrelandtoLadyOrkney，in1695，isapublicinstanceoftheking’saffection，andthelady’sinfluence……LadyOrkney’sendearingofficesaresupposedtohavebeen？foedalabiorumministerial（IntheSloaneManuscriptCollection，attheBritishMuseum，No。4224。
TheManuscriptisentitled:\"ThecharacterandbehaviourofKingWilliam，Sunderland，etc。，asrepresentedinOriginalLetterstotheDukeofShrewsburyfromSomersHalifax，Oxford，SecretaryVernon，etc。\"Itisfullofcuriosa。）
[13]\"TheillegalalienationoftheCrownEstates，partlybysaleandpartlybygift，isascandalouschapterinEnglishhistory……agiganticfraudonthenation。\"（F。W。Newman，\"LecturesonPoliticalEconomy。\"London，1851，pp。129，130。）[FordetailsastohowthepresentlargelandedproprietorsofEnglandcameintotheirpossessionssee\"OurOldNobility。ByNoblesseOblige。\"London，1879。？F。E。
[14]Read，e。g。，E。Burke’sPamphletontheducalhouseofBedford，whoseoffshootwasLordJohnRussell，the\"tomtitofLiberalism。\"
[15]\"Thefarmersforbidcottagerstokeepanylivingcreaturesbesidesthemselvesandchildren，underthepretencethatiftheykeepanybeastsorpoultry，theywillstealfromthefarmers’barnsfortheirsupport;theyalsosay，keepthecottagerspoorandyouwillkeepthemindustrious，&c。，buttherealfactIbelieve，isthatthefarmersmayhavethewholerightofcommontothemselves。\"（\"APoliticalInquiryintotheConsequencesofEnclosingWasteLands。\"London，1785，p。75。）
[16]Eden，l。c。，preface。
[17]\"CapitalFarms。\"TwolettersontheFlourTradeandtheDearnessofCorn。
Byapersoninbusiness。London，1767，pp。19，20。
[18]\"MerchantFarms。\"\"AnEnquiryintotheCausesofthePresentHighPriceofProvisions。\"London，1767，p。11。Note。—Thisexcellentwork，thatwaspublishedanonymously，isbytheRev。NathanielForster。
[19]ThomasWright:\"AShortAddresstothePublicontheMonopolyofLargeFarms，\"1779，pp。2，3。
[20]Rev。Addington:\"InquiryintotheReasonsfororagainstEnclosingOpenFields，\"London，1772，pp。37，43passim。
[21]Dr。R。Price，l。c。，v。ii。，p。155，Forster，Addington，Kent，Price，andJamesAnderson，shouldbereadandcomparedwiththemiserableprattleofSycophantMacCullochinhiscatalogue:\"TheLiteratureofPoliticalEconomy，\"London，1845。
[22]Price，l。c。，p。147。
[23]Price，l。c。，p。159。Weareremindedofancient。Rome。\"Therichhadgotpossession，ofthegreaterpartoftheundividedland。Theytrustedintheconditionsofthetime，thatthesepossessionswouldnotbeagaintakenfromthem，andbought，therefore，someofthepiecesoflandlyingneartheirs，andbelongingtothepoor，withtheacquiescenceoftheirowners，andtooksomebyforce，sothattheynowwerecultivatingwidelyextendeddomains，insteadofisolatedfields。Thentheyemployedslavesinagricultureandcattle—breeding，becausefreemenwouldhavebeentakenfromtabourformilitaryservice。Thepossessionofslavesbroughtthemgreatgain，inasmuchasthese，onaccountoftheirimmunityfrommilitaryservice，couldfreelymultiplyandhaveamultitudeofchildren。Thusthepowerfulmendrewallwealthtothemselves，andallthelandswarmedwithslaves。
TheItalians，ontheotherhand，werealwaysdecreasinginnumber，destroyedastheywerebypoverty，taxes，andmilitaryservice。Evenwhentimesofpeacecame，theyweredoomedtocompleteinactivity，becausetherichwereinpossessionofthesoil，andusedslavesinsteadoffreemeninthetillingofit。\"（Appian:\"CivilWars，\"I。7。）ThispassagereferstothetimebeforetheLicinianrogations。Militaryservice，whichhastenedtosogreatanextenttheruinoftheRomanplebeians，wasalsothechiefmeansbywhich，asinaforcing—house，CharlemagnebroughtaboutthetransformationoffreeGermanpeasantsintoserfsandbondsman。
[24]\"AnInquiryintotheConnexionbetweenthePresentPriceofProvisions，&c。，\"pp。124，129。Tothelikeeffect，butwithanoppositetendency:
\"Working—menaredrivenfromtheircottagesandforcedintothetownstoseekforemployment;butthenalargersurplusisobtained，andthuscapitalisaugmented。\"（\"ThePerilsoftheNation，\"2nded。London，1843，p。14。）
[25]l。c。，p。132。
[26]Steuartsays:\"Ifyoucomparetherentoftheselands\"（heerroneouslyincludesinthiseconomiccategorythetributeofthetaskmentotheclanchief）
\"withtheextent，itappearsverysmall。Ifyoucompareitwiththenumbersfeduponthefarm，youwillfindthatanestateintheHighlandsmaintains，perhaps，tentimesasmanypeopleasanotherofthesamevalueingoodandfertileprovince。\"（l。c。，vol。i。，ch。xvi。，p。104。）
[27]JamesAnderson:\"ObservationsontheMeansofExcitingaSpiritofNationalIndustry，&c。，\"Edinburgh，1777。
[28]In1860thepeopleexpropriatedbyforcewereexportedtoCanadaunderfalsepretences。Somefledtothemountainsandneighbouringislands。Theywerefollowedbythepolice，cametoblowswiththemandescaped。
[29]\"IntheHighlandsofScotland，\"saysBuchanan，thecommentatoronAdamSmith，1814，\"theancientstateofpropertyisdailysubverted……Thelandlord，withoutregardtothehereditarytenant（acategoryusedinerrorhere），nowoffershislandtothehighestbidder，who，ifheisanimprover，instantlyadoptsanewsystemofcultivation。Theland，formerlyoverspreadwithsmalltenantsorlabourers，waspeopledinproportiontoitsproduce，butunderthenewsystemofimprovedcultivationandincreasedrents，thelargestpossibleproduceisobtainedattheleastpossibleexpense:andtheuselesshandsbeing，withthisview，removed，thepopulationisreduced，nottowhatthelandwillmaintain，buttowhatitwillemploy。Thedispossessedtenantseitherseekasubsistenceintheneighbouringtowns，\"&c。（DavidBuchanan？\"Observationson，&c。，A。Smith’sWealthofNations。\"Edinburgh，1814，vol。iv。，p。144。）\"TheScotchgrandeesdispossessedfamiliesastheywouldgrubupcoppice—wood，andtheytreatedvillagesandtheirpeopleasIndiansharassedwithwildbeastsdo，intheirvengeance，ajunglewithtigers……Manisbarteredforafleeceoracarcaseofmutton，nay，heldcheaper……Why，howmuchworseisitthantheintentionoftheMoguls，who，whentheyhadbrokenintothenorthernprovincesofChina，proposedincounciltoexterminatetheinhabitants，andconvertthelandintopasture。
ThisproposalmanyHighlandproprietorshaveeffectedintheirowncountryagainsttheirowncountrymen。\"（GeorgeEnsor:\"AnInquiryConcerningthePopulationofNations。\"Lond，。1818，pp。215，216。）
[30]WhenthepresentDuchessofSutherlandentertainedMrs。BeecherStowe，authoressof\"UncleTom’sCabin，\"withgreatmagnificenceinLondontoshowhersympathyfortheNegroslavesoftheAmericanrepublicssympathythatsheprudentlyforgot，withherfellow—aristocrats，duringthecivilwar，inwhichevery\"noble\"Englishheartbeatfortheslave—owner？I
gaveintheNewYorkTribunethefactsabouttheSutherlandslaves。
（EpitomisedinpartbyCareyin\"TheSlaveTrade。\"Philadelphia，1853，pp。203，204。）MyarticlewasreprintedinaScotchnewspaper，andledtoaprettypolemicbetweenthelatterandthesycophantsoftheSutherlands。
[31]InterestingdetailsonthisfishtradewillbefoundinMr。DavidUrquhart’sPortfolio，series。NassauW。Senior，inhisposthumouswork，alreadyquoted，terms\"theproceedingsin。Sutherlandshireoneofthemostbeneficentclearingssincethememoryofman。\"（l。c。）
[32]Thedeer—forestsofScotlandcontainnotasingletree。Thesheeparedrivenfrom，andthenthedeerdrivento，thenakedhills，andthenitiscalledadeer—forest。Noteventimber—plantingandrealforestculture。
[33]RobertSomers:\"LettersfromtheHighlands:ortheFamineof1847。\"London，1848，pp。12—28passim。TheselettersoriginallyappearedinTheTimes。TheEnglisheconomistsofcourseexplainedthefamineoftheGaelsin1847，bytheirover—population。Atallevents，they\"werepressingontheirfood—supply。\"
The\"clearingofestates，\"orasitiscalledinGermany，\"Bauernlegen，\"
occurredinGermanyespeciallyafterthe30years’war，andledtopeasant—revoltsaslateas1790inKursachsen。ItobtainedespeciallyinEastGermany。
InmostofthePrussianprovinces，FrederickII。forthefirsttimesecuredrightofpropertyforthepeasants。AftertheconquestofSilesiaheforcedthelandlordstorebuildthehuts，barns，etc。，andtoprovidethepeasantswithcattleandimplements。Hewantedsoldiersforhisarmyandtax—payersforhistreasury。Fortherest，thepleasantlifethatthetledunderFrederick’ssystemoffinanceandhodgepodgeruleofdespotism，bureaucracyandfeudalism，maybeseenfromthefollowingquotationfromhisadmirer，Mirabeau:\"LelinfaitdoneunedesgrandesrichessesducultivateurdansleNorddeI’Allemagne。Malheureusementpourl’espècehumaine，cen’estqu’uneressourcecontrelamiséreetnonunmoyendebien—être。
Lesimpôtsdirects，lescorvées，lesservitudesdetoutgenre，écrasentIecultivateurallemand，quipaieencoredesimpôtsindirectsdanstoutcequ’ilachète……etpourcomblederuine，iln’osepasvendreseaproductionsoùetcommeilleveut;itn’osepasachetercedontitabesoinauxmarchandsquipourraienileluilivreraumeilleurprix。Toutescescausesleruinentinsensiblement，etifsetrouveraithorsd’étatdepayerlesimpôtsdirectsà