[16]H。Merivale。\"LecturesonColonisationandColonies，\"1841，Vol。I，p。
146。
[17]Malthus，\"PrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy，\"pp。215，319，320。Inthiswork，Malthusfinallydiscovers，withthehelpofSismondi，thebeautifulTrinityofcapitalisticproduction:over—production，over—population，over—consumption？threeverydelicatemonsters，indeed。Cf。F。Engels，\"UmrissezueinerKritikderNationalökonomie，\"l。c。，p，107，etseq。
[18]HarrietMartineau，\"AManchesterStrike，\"1832，p。101。
[19]Eveninthecottonfamineof1863wefind，inapamphletoftheoperativecottonspinnersofBlackburn，fiercedenunciationsofover—work。which，inconsequenceoftheFactoryActs，ofcourseonlyaffectedadultmalelabourers。\"Theadultoperativesatthismillhavebeenaskedtoworkfrom12to13hoursperday，whiletherearehundredswhoarecompelledtobeidlewhowouldwillinglyworkpartialtime，inordertomaintaintheirfamiliesandsavetheirbrethrenfromaprematuregravethroughbeingoverworked……
We，\"itgoesontosay，\"wouldaskifthepracticeofworkingover—timebyanumberofhands，islikelytocreateagoodfeelingbetweenmastersandservants。Thosewhoareworkedover—timefeeltheinjusticeequallywiththosewhoarecondemnedtoforcedidleness。Thereisinthedistrictalmostsufficientworktogivetoallpartialemploymentiffairlydistributed。
Weareonlyaskingwhatisrightinrequestingthemastersgenerallytopursueasystemofshorthours，particularlyuntilabetterstateofthingsbeginstodawnuponus，ratherthantoworkaportionofthehandsover—time，whileothers，forwantofwork，arecompelledtoexistuponcharity。\"（\"ReportsofInsp。ofFact。，Oct。31，1863，\"p。8。）Theauthorofthe\"EssayonTradeandCommerce\"graspstheeffectofarelativesurplus—populationontheemployedlabourerswithhisusualunerringbourgeoisinstinct。\"Anothercauseofidlenessinthiskingdomisthewantofasufficientnumberoflabouringhands……Wheneverfromanextraordinarydemandformanufactures，labourgrowsscarce，thelabourersfeeltheirownconsequence，andwillmaketheirmastersfeelitlikewise？itisamazing;butsodepravedarethedispositionsofthesepeople，thatinsuchcasesasetofworkmenhavecombinedtodistresstheemployerbyidlingawholedaytogether。\"（\"Essay，&c。，\"pp。27，28。）Thefellowsinfactwerehankeringafterariseinwages。
[20]Economist，Jan。21。1860。
[21]Whilstduringthelastsixmonthsof1866，80—90，000workingpeopleinLondonwerethrownoutofwork，theFactoryReportforthatsamehalfyearsays:\"Itdoesnotappearabsolutelytruetosaythatdemandwillalwaysproducesupplyjustatthemomentwhenitisneeded。Ithasnotdonesowithlabour，formuchmachineryhasbeenidlelastyearforwantofhands。\"
（\"Rep。ofInsp。ofFact。，31stOct。，1866，\"p。81。）
[22]OpeningaddresstotheSanitaryConference，Birmingham，January15th，1875，byJ。Chamberlain，Mayorofthetown，now（1883）PresidentoftheBoardofTrade。
[23]781townsgiveninthecensusfor1861forEnglandandWales\"contained10，960，998inhabitants，whilethevillagesandcountryparishescontained9，105，226。In1851，580townsweredistinguished，andthepopulationinthemandinthesurroundingcountrywasnearlyequal。Butwhileinthesubsequenttenyearsthepopulationinthevillagesandthecountryincreasedhalfamillion，thepopulationinthe580townsincreasedbyamillionandahalf（1，554，067）。Theincreaseofthepopulationofthecountryparishesis6。5percent。，andofthetowns17。3percent。Thedifferenceintheratesofincreaseisduetothemigrationfromcountrytotown。Three—fourthsofthetotalincreaseofpopulationhastakenplaceinthetowns。\"（\"Census。
&c。，\"pp。11and12。）
[24]\"Povertyseemsfavourabletogeneration。\"（A。Smith。）ThisisevenaspeciallywisearrangementofGod，accordingtothegallantandwittyAbbé
Galiani\"Iddioafchegliuominicheesercitanomestieridiprimautilitinasconoabbondantemente。\"（Galiani，l。c。，p。78。）\"Miseryuptotheextremepointoffamineandpestilence，insteadofchecking，tendstoincreasepopulation。\"（S。Laing，\"NationalDistress，\"1844，p。69。）AfterLainghasillustratedthisbystatistics，hecontinues:\"Ifthepeoplewereallineasycircumstances，theworldwouldsoonbedepopulated。\"
[25]\"Dejourenjourildeviantdoncplusclairquelesrapportsdeproductiondanslesquelssemeutlabourgeoisien’ontpasuncaractèreun，uncatactèresimple，maisuncaractèrededuplicité;
quedanslesmêmesrapportsdanslesquelsseproduitlarichesse，lamiséreseproduitaussi;quedanslesmêmesrapportsdanslesquelsilyadéveloppementdesforcesproductives，ilyauneforceproductivederépression;quecesrapportsneproduisentlarichessebourgeoise，c’est—à—direlarichessedelaclassebourgeoise，qu’enanéantissantcontinuellementlarichessedesmembresintégrantsdecetteclasseetenproduisantunprolétariattoujourscroissant。\"
（KarlMarx:\"MisèredelaPhilosophie，\"p。116。）
[26]G。Ortes:\"DeliaEconomiaNazionalelibrisei，1777，\"inCustodi，ParteModerna，t。xxi，pp。6，9，22，25，etc。Ortessays，l。c。，p。32:\"Inluocodiprogettarsistemiinutiliperlafelicitàde’popoli，milimiterò
ainvestigatelaregiondeltaloroinfelicità。\"
[27]\"ADissertationonthePoorLaws。ByaWell—wisherofMankind。（TheRev。
J。Townsend）1786，\"republishedLond。1817，pp。15，39，41。This\"delicate\"
parson，fromwhoseworkjustquoted，aswellasfromhis\"JourneythroughSpain，\"Malthusoftencopieswholepages，himselfborrowedthegreaterpartofhisdoctrinefromSirJamesSteuart，whomhehoweveraltersintheborrowing。E。g。，whenSteuartsays:\"Here，inslavery，wasaforciblemethodofmakingmankinddiligent，\"[forthenon—workers]……
\"Menwerethenforcedtowork\"[i。e。，toworkgratisforothers]，\"becausetheywereslavesofothers;menarenowforcedtowork\"[i。e。，toworkgratisfornon—workers]\"becausetheyaretheslavesoftheirnecessities，\"
hedoesnotthenceconclude，likethefatholderofbenefices，thatthewage—labourermustalwaysgofasting。Hewishes，onthecontrary，toincreasetheirwantsandtomaketheincreasingnumberoftheirwantsastimulustotheirlabourforthe\"moredelicate。\"
[28]Storch，l。c。，t。iii，p。223。
[29]Sismondi，l。c。，pp。79，80，85。
[30]DestuttdeTracy，l。c。，p。231:\"Lesnationspauvres，c’estlà
oùlepeupleestàsonaise;etlesnationsriches，c’estlàoùilestordinairementpauvre。\"
[31]\"TenthReportoftheCommissionersofH。M。InlandRevenue。\"Lond。，1866。
p。38。
[32]lbidem。
[33]Thesefiguresaresufficientforcomparison，but，takenabsolutely，arefalse，since，perhaps，£100，000，000ofincomeareannuallynotdeclared。
ThecomplaintsoftheInlandRevenueCommissionersofsystematicfraud，especiallyonthepartofthecommercialandindustrialclasses，arerepeatedineachoftheirreports。Soe。g。，\"AJoint—stockcompanyreturns£6，000asassessableprofits，thesurveyorraisestheamountto£88，000，anduponthatsumdutyisultimatelypaid。Anothercompanywhichreturns£190，000isfinallycompelledtoadmitthatthetruereturnshouldbe£250，000。\"（Ibid。，p，42。）
[34]\"Census，&c。，\"l。c。，p。29。JohnBright’sassertionthat150landlordsownhalfofEngland，and12halftheScotchsoil，hasneverbeenrefuted。
[35]\"FourthReport，&c。，ofInlandRevenue。\"Lond。，1860，p。17。
[36]Thesearethenetincomesaftercertainlegallyauthorisedabatements。
[37]Atthismoment，March，1867，theIndianandChinesemarketisagainoverstockedbytheconsignmentsoftheBritishcottonmanufacturers。In1866areductioninwagesof5percent。tookplaceamongstthecottonoperatives。In1867，asconsequenceofasimilaroperation，therewasastrikeof20，000menatPreston。[Addedinthe4thGermanedition。？Thatwasthepreludetothecrisiswhichbrokeoutimmediatelyafterwards。？F。E。]
[38]\"Census，&C。，\"l。c。，P。11。
[39]GladstoneintheHouseofCommons，Feb。13th，1843。Times，Feb。
14th，1843？\"Itisoneofthemostmelancholyfeaturesinthesocialstateofthiscountrythatwesee，beyondthepossibilityofdenial，thatwhilethereisatthismomentadecreaseintheconsumingpowersofthepeople，anincreaseofthepressureofprivationsanddistress;thereisatthesametimeaconstantaccumulationofwealthintheupperclasses，anincreaseoftheluxuriousnessoftheirhabits，andoftheirmeansofenjoyment。\"
（Hansard，13thFeb。）
[40]GladstoneintheHouseofCommons，April16th，1863。MorningStar，April17th。
[41]SeetheofficialaccountsintheBluebook:\"MiscellaneousStatisticsoftheUnitedKingdom，\"Partvi。，London，1866，pp。260—273，passim。Insteadofthestatisticsoforphanasylums，&c。，thedeclamationsoftheministerialjournalsinrecommendingdowriesfortheRoyalchildrenmightalsoserve。
Thegreaterdearnessofthemeansofsubsistenceisneverforgottenthere。
[42]Gladstone，HouseofCommons，7thApril，1864。？\"TheHansardversionruns:
’Again，andyetmoreatlarge？whatishumanlife，but，inthemajorityofcases，astruggleforexistence。’ThecontinualcryingcontradictionsinGladstone’sBudgetspeechesof1863and1864werecharacterisedbyanEnglishwriterbythefollowingquotationfromBoileau:\"VoilàI’hommeeneffet。Ilvadublancaunoir，Ilcondamneaumatinsessentimentsdusoir。
Importunàtoutautre，àsoi—mêmeincommode，Ilchangeàtoutmomentd’espritcommedemode。\"（\"TheTheoryofExchanges，&c。，\"London，1864，p。135。）
[43]H。Fawcett，l。c。，pp。67—82。Astotheincreasingdependenceoflabourersontheretailshopkeepers，thisistheconsequenceofthefrequentoscillationsandinterruptionsoftheiremployment。
[44]WaleshereisalwaysincludedinEngland。
[45]ApeculiarlightisthrowmontheadvancemadesincethetimeofAdamSmith，bythefactthatbyhimtheword\"workhouse\"isstilloccasionallyusedassynonymouswith\"manufactory\";e。g。，theopeningofhischapteronthedivisionoflabour;\"thoseemployedineverydifferentbranchoftheworkcanoftenbecollectedintothesameworkhouse。\"
[46]\"PublicHealth。SixthReport，1864，\"p。13。
[47]l。c。，p。17。
[48]l。c。，p。13。
[49]l。c。，Appendix，p。232。
[50]l。c。，pp。232，233。
[51]l。c。，pp。14，15。
[52]\"Innoparticularhavetherightsofpersonsbeensoavowedlyandshamefullysacrificedtotherightsofpropertyasinregardtothelodgingofthelabouringclass。Everylargetownmaybelookeduponasaplaceofhumansacrifice，ashrinewherethousandspassyearlythroughthefireasofferingstothemolochofavarice，\"S。Laing，l。c。，p。150。
[53]\"PublicHealth，EighthReport。1866。\"p。14，note。
[54]l。c。，p。89。Withreferencetothechildreninthesecolonies，Dr。Huntersays:\"Peoplearenotnowalivetotellushowchildrenwerebroughtupbeforethisageofdenseagglomerationsofpoorbegan，andhewouldbeamshprophetwhoshouldtelluswhatfuturebehaviouristobeexpectedfromthepresentgrowthofchildren，who，undercircumstancesprobablyneverbeforeparalleledinthiscountry，arenowcompletingtheireducationforfuturepractice，as’dangerousclasses’bysittinguphalfthenightwithpersonsofeveryage，halfnaked，drunken，obscene，andquarrelsome。\"
（l。c。，p。56。）
[55]l。c。，p。62。
[56]\"ReportoftheOfficerofHealthofSt。Martins—in—the—Fields，1865。
[57]PublicHealth，EighthReport，1866，\"p。91。
[58]l。c。，p。88。
[59]l。c。，p。88。
[60]l。c。，p。89。
[61]l。c。，p。55and56。
[62]l。c。，p。149。
[63]l。c。，p。50。
[64]棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗
COLLECTINGAGENTSLIST（BRADFORD）。
棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗
HousesVulcanStreet，No。122……1room16personsLumievStreet，No。13……1room11personsBowerStreet，No。41……1room11personsPortlandStreet。No。112……1room10personsHardyStreet，No。17……1room10personsNorthStreet，No。18……1room16personsNorthStreet，No。17……1room13personsWymerStreet，No。19……1room8adultsJowettStreet，No。56……1room12personsGeorgeStreet，No。150……1room3familiesRifleCourtMarygate，No。11……1room11personsMarshallStreet，No。28……1room10personsMarshallStreet，No。49……1room3familiesGeorgeStreet，No。128……1room18personsGeorgeStreet，No。130……1room16personsEdwardStreet，No。4……1room17personsGeorgeStreet，No。49……1room2familiesYorkStreet，No。34，……1room2familiesSaltPieStreet（bottom）……2room26personsCellarsRegentSquare……1cellar8personsAcreStreet……1cellar7persons33RobertsCourt……1cellar7personsBackPrattStreet……1cellar7personsusedasabrazier’sshop27EbenezerStreet……1cellar6personsl。c。，p。111。（nomaleabove18）。
棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗棗[65]l。c。，p。114。
[66]l。c。，p。50。
[67]\"PublicHealth。SeventhReport。1865，\"p。18。
[68]l。c。，p。165。
[69]l。c。，p。18，Note。？TheRelievingOfficeroftheChapel—en—le—FrithUnionreportedtotheRegistar—Generalasfollows:？\"AtDoveholes，anumberofsmallexcavationshavebeenmadeintoalargehillockoflimeashes（therefuseoflime—kilns），andwhichareusedasdwellings，andoccupiedbylabourersandothersemployedintheconstructionofarailwaynowincourseofconstructionthroughthatneighbourhood。Theexcavationsaresmallanddamp，andhavenodrainsorpriviesaboutthem，andnottheslightestmeansofventilationexceptupaholepulledthroughthetop，andusedforachimney。Inconsequenceofthisdefect，small—poxhasbeenragingforsometime，andsomedeaths[amongstthetroglodytes]havebeencausedbyit。\"（l。c。，note2。）
[70]ThedetailsgivenattheendofPartIV。referespeciallytothelabourersincoalmines。Onthestillworseconditioninmetalmines，seetheveryconscientiousReportoftheRoyalCommissionof1864。
[71]l。c。，pp。180，182。
[72]l。c。，pp。515，517。
[73]l。c。，p。16。
[74]\"WholesalestarvationoftheLondonPoor……WithinthelastfewdaysthewallsofLondonhavebeenplacardedwithlargeposters，bearingthefollowingremarkableannouncement:？’Fatoxen！Starvingmen！Thefatoxenfromtheirpalaceofglasshavegonetofeedtherichintheirluxuriousabode，whilethestarvingmenarelefttorotanddieintheirwretcheddens。’Theplacardsbearingtheseominouswordsareputupatcertainintervals。Nosoonerhasonesetbeendefacedorcoveredover，thanafreshsetisplacardedintheformer，orsomeequallypublicplace……This……remindsoneofthesecretrevolutionaryassociationswhichpreparedtheFrenchpeoplefortheeventsof1789……Atthismoment，whileEnglishworkmenwiththeirwivesandchildrenaredyingofcoldandhunger，therearemillionsofEnglishgold？theproduceofEnglishlabour？beinginvestedinRussian，Spanish，Italian，andotherforeignenterprises。\"？Reynolds’Newspaper，January20th，1867。
[75]JamesE。ThoroldRogers。（Prof。ofPolit。Econ。intheUniversityofOxford。）
\"AHistoryofAgricultureandPricesinEngland。\"Oxford，1866，v。1，p。
690。Thiswork，thefruitofpatientanddiligentlabour，containsinthetwovolumesthathavesofarappeared，onlytheperiodfrom1259to1400。
Thesecondvolumecontainssimplystatistics。Itisthefirstauthentic\"HistoryofPrices\"ofthetimethatwepossess。
[76]\"ReasonsfortheLateIncreaseofthePoor—Rates:oracomparativeviewofthepricesoflabourandprovisions。\"Lond。，1777，pp。5，11。
[77]Dr。RichardPrice:\"ObservationsonReversionaryPayments，\"6thEd。ByW。Morgan，Lond。，1803，v。11。，pp。158，159。Priceremarksonp。159:
\"Thenominalpriceofdaylabourisatpresentnomorethanaboutfourtimes，or，atmost，fivetimeshigherthanitwasintheyear1514。Butthepriceofcornisseventimes，andofflesh—meatandraimentaboutfifteentimeshigher。Sofar，therefore，hasthepriceoflabourbeenevenfromadvancinginproportiontotheincreaseintheexpensesofliving，thatitdoesnotappearthatitbearsnowhalftheproportiontothoseexpensesthatitdidbear。\"
[78]Barton，l。c。，p。26。Fortheendofthe18thcenturycf。Eden，l。c。
[79]Parry，l。c。，p。86。
[80]id。，p。213。
[81]S。Laing，l。c。，p。62。
[82]\"EnglandandAmerica。\"Lond。，1833，Vol。1，p。47。
[83]Thelandedaristocracyadvancedthemselvestothisend，ofcourseperParliament，fundsfromtheStateTreasury，ataverylowrateofinterest，whichthefarmershavetomakegoodatamuchhigherrate。
[84]LondonEconomist，May29th，1845，p。290。
[85]Thedecreaseofthemiddle—classfarmerscanbeseenespeciallyinthecensuscategory:\"Farmer’sson，grandson，brother，nephew，daughter，granddaughter，sister，niece\";inaword，themembersofhisownfamily，employedbythefarmer。Thiscategorynumbered，in1851，216，851persons;in1861，only176，151。From1851to1871，thefarmsunder20acresfellbymorethan900innumber;thosebetween50and75acresfellfrom8，253to6，370;
thesamethingoccurredwithallotherfarmsunder100acres。Ontheotherhand，duringthesametwentyyears，thenumberoflargefarmsincreased;
thoseof300—500acresrosefrom7，771to8，410，thoseofmorethan500
acresfrom2，755to3，914，thoseofmorethan1，000acresfrom492to582。
[86]Thenumberofshepherdsincreasedfrom12，517to25，559。
[87]Census，l。c。，p。36。
[88]Rogers，l。c。，p。693，p。10。Mr。RogersbelongstotheLiberalSchool，isapersonalfriendofCobdenandBright，andthereforenolaudatortemporisacti。
[89]\"PublicHealth。SeventhReport，\"1865，p。242。Itisthereforenothingunusualeitherforthelandlordtoraisealabourer’srentassoonashehearsthatheisearnitigalittlemore，orforthefarmertolowerthewageofthelabourer，\"becausehiswifehasfoundatrade，\"l。c。
[90]l。c。，p。135。
[91]l。c。，p。134。
[92]\"ReportoftheCommissioners……relatingtoTransportationandPenalServitude，\"
Lond。，1863，pp。42，50。
[93]l。c。，p。77。\"MemorandumbytheLordChiefJustice。\"
[94]l。c。，Vol。11，MinutesofEvidence。
[95]l。c。，Vol。1。Appendix，p。280。
[96]l。c。，pp。274，275。
[97]\"PublicHealth，SixthReport，\"1864，pp。238，249，261，262。
[98]l。c。，p。262。
[99]l。c。，p。17。TheEnglishagriculturallabourerreceivesonly1/4asmuchmilk，and1/2asmuchbreadastheIrish。ArthurYounginhis\"TourinIreland，\"atthebeginningofthiscentury，alreadynoticedthebetternourishmentofthelatter。Thereasonissimplythis，thatthepoorIrishfarmerisincomparablymorehumanethantherichEnglish。AsregardsWales，thatwhichissaidinthetextholdsonlyforthesouthwest。Allthedoctorsthereagreethattheincreaseofthedeath—ratethroughtuberculosis，scrofula，etc。，increasesinintensitywiththedeteriorationofthephysicalconditionofthepopulation，andallascribethisdeteriorationtopoverty。\"His（thefarmlabourer’s）keepisreckonedataboutfivepenceaday，butinmanydistrictsitwassaidtobeofmuchlesscosttothefarmer\"[himselfverypoor]……\"Amorselofthesaltmeatorbacon，……saltedanddriedtothetextureofmahogany，andhardlyworththedifficultprocessofassimilation……isusedtoflavouralargequantityofbrothorgruel，ofmealandleeks，anddayafterdaythisisthelabourer’sdinner。\"Theadvanceofindustryresultedforhim，inthisharshanddampclimate，in\"theabandonmentofthesolidhomespunclothinginfavourofthecheapandso—calledcottongoods，\"andofstrongerdrinksforso—calledtea。\"Theagriculturist，afterseveralhours’exposuretowindandrain，pinshiscottagetositbyafireofpeatorofballsofclayandsmallcoalkneadedtogether，fromwhichvolumesofcarbonicandsulphurousacidsarepouredforth。Hiswallsareofmudandstones，hisfloorthebareearthwhichwastherebeforethehutwasbuilt，hisroofamassoflooseandsoddenthatch。Everycreviceistoppedtomaintainwarmth，andinanatmosphereofdiabolicodour，withamudfioor，withhisonlyclothesdryingonhisback，heoftensupsandsleepswithhiswifeandchildren。Obstetricianswhohavepassedpartsofthenightinsuchcibinshavedescribedhowtheyfoundtheirfeetsinkinginthemudofthefloor，andtheywereforced（easytask）todrillaholethroughthewalltoeffectalittleprivaterespiration。Itwasattestedbynumerouswitnessesinvariousgradesoflife，thattotheseinsanitaryinfluences，andmanymore，theunderfedpeasantwasnightlyexposed，andoftheresult，adebilitatedandscrofulouspeople，therewasnowantofevidence……ThestatementsoftherelievingofficersofCarmarthenshireandCardiganshireshowinastrikingwaythesamestateofthings。Thereisbesides\"aplaguemorehorriblestill，thegreatnumberofidiots。\"
Nowawordontheclimaticconditions。\"Astrongsouth—westwindblowsoverthewholecountryfor8or9monthsintheyear，bringingwithittorrentsofrain，whichdischargeprincipallyuponthewesternslopesofthehills。Treesarerare，exceptinshelteredplaces，andwherenotprotected，areblownoutofallshape。Thecottagesgenerallycrouchundersomebank，orofteninaravineorquarry，andnonebutthesmallestsheepandnativecattlecanliveonthepastures……TheyoungpeoplemigratetotheeasternminingdistrictsofGlamorganandMonmouth。Carmarthenshireisthebreedinggroundoftheminingpopulationandtheirhospital。Thepopulationcanthereforebarelymaintainitsnumbers。\"ThusinCardiganshire:18511861棗棗棗？;Males……45，15;44，446;Females……52，45;52，955;棗棗棗？p;97，6p;97，401Dr。Hunter’sReportin\"PublicHealth，SeventhReport。1865，\"pp。498—502，passim。
[100]In1865thislawwasimprovedtosomeextent。Itwillsoonbelearntfromexperiencethattinkeringofthissortisofnouse。
[101]Inordertounderstandthatwhichfollows，wemustrememberthat\"CloseVillages\"arethosewhoseownersareoneortwolargelandlords。\"Openvillages，\"thosewhosesoilbelongstomanysmallerlandlords。Itisinthelatterthatbuildingspeculatorscanbuildcottagesandlodging—houses。
[102]Ashow—villageofthiskindlooksverynice，butisasunrealasthevillagesthatCatherineII。sawonherjourneytotheCrimea。Inrecenttimestheshepherd，alsohasoftenbeenbanishedfromtheseshow—villages;e。g。，nearMarketHarboroissheep—farmofabout500acres，whichonlyemploysthelabourofoneman。Toreducethelongtrudgesoverthesewideplains，thebeautifulpasturesofLeicesterandNorthampton，theshepherdusedtogetacottageonthefarm。Nowtheygivehimathirteenthshillingaweekforlodging，thathemustfindfarawayinanopenvillage。
[103]\"Thelabourers’houses（intheopenvillages，which，ofcourse，arealwaysovercrowded）areusuallyinrows，builtwiththeirbacksagainsttheextremeedgeoftheplotoflandwhichthebuildercouldcallhis，andonthisaccountarenotallowedlightandair，exceptfromthefront。\"（Dr。Hunter’sReport，l。c。，p。135。）Veryoftenthebeersellerorgrocerofthevillageisatthesametimetheletterofitshouses。Inthiscasetheagriculturallabourerfindsinhimasecondmaster，besidesthefarmer。Hemustbehiscustomeraswellashistenant。\"Thehindwithhis10s。aweek，minusarentof£4ayear……isobligedtobuyattheseller’sownterms，hismodicumoftea，sugar，flour，soap，candies，andbeer。\"（l。c。，p。
132。）Theseopenvillagesform，infact，the\"penalsettlements\"oftheEnglishagriculturalproletariat。Manyofthecottagesaresimplylodging—houses，throughwhichalltherabbleoftheneighbourhoodpasses。Thecountrylabourerandhisfamilywhohadoften，inawaytrulywonderful，preserved，underthefoulestconditions，athoroughnessandpurityofcharacter，go，inthese，utterlytothedevil。Itis，ofcourse，thefashionamongstthearistocraticshylockstoshrugtheirshoulderspharisaicallyatthebuildingspeculators，thesmalllandlords，andtheopenvillages。Theyknowwellenoughthattheir\"closevillages\"and\"show—villages\"arethebirth—placesoftheopenvillages，andcouldnotexistwithoutthem。\"Thelabourers……wereitnotforthesmallowners，would，forbyfarthemostpart，havetosleepunderthetreesofthefarmsonwhichtheywork。\"（l。c。，p。135。）Thesystemof\"open\"and\"closed\"villagesobtainsinalltheMidlandcountiesandthroughouttheEastofEngland。
[104]\"Theemployer……is……directlyorindirectlysecuringtohimselftheprofitonamanemployedat10s。aweek，andreceivingfromthispoorhind£4or£5annualrentforhousesnotworth£20inareallyfreemarket，butmaintainedattheirartificialvaluebythepoweroftheownertosay’Usemyhouse，orgoseekahiringelsewherewithoutacharacterfromme……’Doesamanwishtobetterhimself，togoasaplate—layerontherailway，ortobeginquarry—work，thesamepowerisreadywith’Workformeatthislowrateofwagesorbegoneataweek’snotice;takeyourpigwithyou，andgetwhatyoucanforthepotatoesgrowinginyourgarden。’
Shouldhisinterestappeartobebetterservedbyit，anenhancedrentissometimespreferredinthesecasesbytheowner（i。e。，thefarmer）
asthepenaltyforleavinghisservice。\"（Dr。Hunter，l。c。，p。132。）
[105]\"Newmarriedcouplesarenoedifyingstudyforgrown—upbrothersandsisters:
andthoughinstancesmustnotberecorded，sufficientdataarerememberedtowarranttheremark，thatgreatdepressionandsometimesdeatharethelotofthefemaleparticipatorintheoffenceofincest。\"（Dr。Hunter，l。c。，p。137。）AmemberoftheruralpolicewhohadformanyyearsbeenadetectiveintheworstquartersofLondon，saysofthegirlsofhisvillage:
\"theirboldnessandshamelessnessIneversawequalledduringsomeyearsofpolicelifeanddetectivedutyintheworstpartsofLondon……Theylivelikepigs，greatboysandgirls，mothersandfathers，allsleepinginoneroom，inmanyinstances。\"（\"Child。Empl。Com。SixthReport，1867，\"
p。77sq。155。）
[106]\"PublicHealth。SeventhReport，1865，\"pp。9，14passim。
[107]\"Theheaven—bomemploymentofthehindgivesdignityeventohisposition。
Heisnotaslave，butasoldierofpeace，anddeserveshisplaceinmarriedmen’squarterstobeprovidedbythelandlord，whohasclaimedapowerofenforcedlaboursimilartothatthecountrydemandsofthesoldier。
Henomotereceivesmarket—priceforhisworkthandoesthesoldier。Likethesoldierheiscaughtyoung，ignorant，knowingonlyhisowntrade，andhisownlocality。Earlymarriageand。theoperationofthevariouslawsofsettlementaffecttheoneasenlistmentandtheMutinyActaffecttheother。\"（Dr。Hunter，l。c。，p。132。）Sometimesanexceptionallysoft—heartedlandlordrelentsasthesolitudehehascreated。\"Itisamelancholythingtostandaloneinone’scountry，\"saidLordLeicester，whencomplimentedonthecompletionofHookham。\"Ilookaroundandnotahouseistobeseenbutmine。IamthegiantofGiantCastle，andhaveeatupallmyneighhours。\"
[108]AsimilarmovementisseenduringthelasttenyearsinFrance;inproportionascapitalistproductiontheretakespossessionofagriculture，itdrivesthe\"surplus\"agriculturalpopulationintothetowns。Herealsowefinddeteriorationinthehousingandotherconditionsatthesourceofthesurplus—population。Onthespecial\"prolétariatfoncier，\"towhichthissystemofparcellingoutthelandhasgivenrise，see，amongothers，theworkofColins，alreadyquoted，andKarlMarx\"DerAchtzehnteBrumairedesLouisBonaparte。\"2ndedition。Hamburg，1869，pp。56，&c。In1846，thetownpopulationinFrancewasrepresentedby24。42，theagriculturalby75。58;in1861，thetownby28。86，theagriculturalby71。14percent。