oftheschoolmastercouldapply,totheconditionsofproductionandpopulationofthenineteenthcentury,thestandardofthe14th,thisnaïveté,intothebargain,overlookedthefactthatwhilst,aftertheplagueandthedecimationthataccompaniedit,followedonthissideoftheChannel,inEngland,enfranchisementandenrichmentoftheagriculturalpopulation,onthatside,inFrance,followedgreaterservitudeandmoremisery。[124]
TheIrishfamineof1846killedmorethan1,000,000people,butitkilledpoordevilsonly。Tothewealthofthecountryitdidnottheslightestdamage。Theexodusofthenext20years,anexodusstillconstantlyincreasing,didnot,as,e。g。,theThirtyYears’War,decimate,alongwiththehumanbeings,theirmeansofproduction。Irishgeniusdiscoveredanaltogethernewwayofspiritingapoorpeoplethousandsofmilesawayfromthesceneofitsmisery。TheexilestransplantedtotheUnitedStates,sendhomesumsofmoneyeveryyearastravellingexpensesforthoseleftbehind。
Everytroopthatemigratesoneyear,drawsanotherafteritthenext。Thus,insteadofcostingIrelandanything,emigrationformsoneofthemostlucrativebranchesofitsexporttrade。Finally,itisasystematicprocess,whichdoesnotsimplymakeapassinggapinthepopulation,butsucksoutofiteveryyearmorepeoplethanarereplacedbythebirths,sothattheabsolutelevelofthepopulationfallsyearbyyear。[125]
WhatweretheconsequencesfortheIrishlabourersleftbehindandfreedfromthesurplus—population?Thattherelativesurplus—populationisto—dayasgreatasbefore1846;thatwagesarejustaslow,thattheoppressionofthelabourershasincreased,thatmiseryisforcingthecountrytowardsanewcrisis。Thefactsaresimple。Therevolutioninagriculturehaskeptpacewithemigration。Theproductionofrelativesurplus—populationhasmorethankeptpacewiththeabsolutedepopulation。
AglanceattableC。showsthatthechangeofarabletopasturelandmustworkyetmoreacutelyinIrelandthaninEngland。InEnglandthecultivationofgreencropsincreaseswiththebreedingofcattle;inIreland,itdecreases。
Whilstalargenumberofacres,thatwereformerlytilled,lieidleorareturnedpermanentlyintograss—land,agreatpartofthewastelandandpeatbogsthatwereunusedformerly,becomeofservicefortheextensionofcattle—breeding。Thesmallerandmediumfarmers?Ireckonamongtheseallwhodonotcultivatemorethan100acres?stillmakeupabout8/10thsofthewholenumbep;[126]Theyareoneaftertheother,andwithadegreeofforceunknownbefore,crushedbythecompetitionofanagriculturemanagedbycapital,andthereforetheycontinuallyfurnishnewrecruitstotheclassofwage—labourers。TheonegreatindustryofIreland,linen—manufacture,requiresrelativelyfewadultmenandonlyemploysaltogether,inspiteofitsexpansionsincethepriceofcottonrosein1861—1866,acomparativelyinsignificantpartofthepopulation。Likeallothergreatmodemindustries,itconstantlyproduces,byincessantfluctuations,arelativesurplus—populationwithinitsownsphere,evenwithanabsoluteincreaseinthemassofhumanbeingsabsorbedbyit。Themiseryoftheagriculturalpopulationformsthepedestalforgiganticshirt—factories,whosearmiesoflabourersare,forthemostpart,scatteredoverthecountry。Here,weencounteragainthesystemdescribedaboveofdomesticindustry,whichinunderpaymentandover—work,possessesitsownsystematicmeansforcreatingsupernumerarylabourers。Finally,althoughthedepopulationhasnotsuchdestructiveconsequencesaswouldresultinacountrywithfullydevelopedcapitalisticproduction,itdoesnotgoonwithoutconstantreactionuponthehome—market。
Thegapwhichemigrationcauseshere,limitsnotonlythelocaldemandforlabour,butalsotheincomesofsmallshopkeepers,artisans,tradespeoplegenerally。Hencethediminutioninincomesbetween£60and£100
inTableE。
AclearstatementoftheconditionoftheagriculturallabourersinIrelandistobefoundintheReportsoftheIrishPoorLawInspectors(1870)。[127]Officialsofagovernmentwhichismaintainedonlybybayonetsandbyastateofsiege,nowopen,nowdisguised,theyhavetoobservealltheprecautionsoflanguagethattheircolleaguesinEnglanddisdain。Inspiteofthis,however,theydonotlettheirgovernmentcradleitselfinillusions。Accordingtothemtherateofwagesinthecountry,stillverylow,haswithinthelast20yearsrisen50—60percent。,andstandsnow,ontheaverage,at6s。to9s。perweek。Butbehindthisapparentrise,ishiddenanactualfallinwages,foritdoesnotcorrespondatalltotheriseinpriceofthenecessarymeansofsubsistencethathastakenplaceinthemeantime。
Forproof,thefollowingextractfromtheofficialaccountsofanIrishworkhouse。
AVERAGEWEEKLYCOSTPERHEAD
YearendedProvisionsandNecessaries。Clothing。TOTAL。
29thSept。,1849。1s。31/4d。3d。1s。61/4d。
29thSept。,1869。2s。71/4d。6d。3s。11/4d。Thepriceofthenecessarymeansofsubsistenceisthereforefullytwice,andthatofclothingexactlytwice,asmuchastheywere20yearsbefore。
Evenapartfromthisdisproportion,themerecomparisonoftherateofwagesexpressedingoldwouldgivearesultfarfromaccurate。Beforethefamine,thegreatmassofagriculturalwageswerepaidinkind,onlythesmallestpartinmoney;to—day,paymentinmoneyistherule。Fromthisitfollowsthat,whatevertheamountoftherealwage,itsmoneyratemustrise。\"Previoustothefamine,thelabourerenjoyedhiscabin……
witharood,orhalf—acreoracreofland,andfacilitiesfor……acropofpotatoes。Hewasabletorearhispigandkeepfowl……Buttheynowhavetobuybread,andtheyhavenorefuseuponwhichtheycanfeedapigorfowl,andtheyhaveconsequentlynobenefitfromthesaleofapig,fowl,oreggs。\"[128]Infact,formerly,theagriculturallabourerswerebutthesmallestofthesmallfarmers,andformedforthemostpartakindofrear—guardofthemediumandlargefarmsonwhichtheyfoundemployment。Onlysincethecatastropheof1846havetheybeguntoformafractionoftheclassofpurelywage—labourers,aspecialclass,connectedwithitswage—mastersonlybymonetaryrelations。
Weknowwhatweretheconditionsoftheirdwellingsin1846。Sincethentheyhavegrownyetworse。Apartoftheagriculturallabourers,which,however,growslessdaybyday,dwellsstillontheholdingsofthefarmersinover—crowdedhuts,whosehideousnessfarsurpassestheworstthattheEnglishagriculturallabourersofferedusinthisway。AndthisholdsgenerallywiththeexceptionofcertaintractsofUlster;inthesouth,inthecountiesofCork,Limerick,Kilkenny,&c。;intheeast,inWicklow,Wexford,&c。;inthecentreofIreland,inKing’sandQueen’sCounty,,Dublin,&c。;inthewest,inSligo,Roscommon,Mayo,Galway,&c。\"Theagriculturallabourers’huts,\"aninspectorcriesout,\"areadisgracetotheChristianityandtothecivilisationofthiscountry。\"[129]Inordertoincreasetheattractionsoftheseholesforthelabourers,thepiecesoflandbelongingtheretofromtimeimmemorial,aresystematicallyconfiscated。\"Themeresensethattheyexistsubjecttothisspeciesofban,onthepartofthelandlordsandtheiragents,has……givenbirthinthemindsofthelabourerstocorrespondingsentimentsofantagonismanddissatisfactiontowardsthosebywhomtheyarethusledtoregardthemselvesasbeingtreatedas……aproscribedrace。\"[130]
Thefirstactoftheagriculturalrevolutionwastosweepawaythehutssituatedonthefieldoflabour。Thiswasdoneonthelargestscale,andasifinobediencetoacommandfromonhigh。Thusmanylabourerswerecompelledtoseekshelterinvillagesandtowns。Theretheywerethrownlikerefuseintogarrets,holes,cellarsandcomers,intheworstbackslums。ThousandsofIrishfamilies,whoaccordingtothetestimonyoftheEnglish,eatenupasthesearewithnationalprejudice,arenotablefortheirrareattachmenttothedomestichearth,fortheirgaietyandthepurityoftheirhome—life,foundthemselvessuddenlytransplantedintohotbedsofvice。Themenarenowobligedtoseekworkoftheneighbouringfarmersandareonlyhiredbytheday,andthereforeunderthemostprecariousformofwage。Hence\"theysometimeshavelongdistancestogotoandfromwork,oftengetwet,andsuffermuchhardship,notunfrequentlyendinginsickness,diseaseandwant。\"[131]
\"Thetownshavehadtoreceivefromyeartoyearwhatwasdeemedtobethesurplus—labouroftheruraldivision;\"[132]andthenpeoplestillwonder\"thereisstillasurplusoflabourinthetownsandvillages,andeitherascarcityorathreatenedscarcityinsomeofthecountrydivisions。\"[133]Thetruthisthatthiswantonlybecomesperceptible\"inharvest—time,orduringspring,oratsuchtimesasagriculturaloperationsarecarriedonwithactivity;atotherperiodsoftheyearmanyhandsareidle;\"[134]that\"fromthediggingoutofthemaincropofpotatoesinOctoberuntiltheearlyspringfollowing……thereisnoemploymentforthem;\"[135]andfurther,thatduringtheactivetimesthey\"aresubjecttobrokendaysandtoallkindsofinterruptions。\"[136]
Theseresultsoftheagriculturalrevolution?i。e。,thechangeofarableintopastureland,theuseofmachinery,themostrigorouseconomyoflabour,&c。,arestillfurtheraggravatedbythemodellandlords,who,insteadofspendingtheirrentsinothercountries,condescendtoliveinIrelandontheirdemesnes。Inorderthatthelawofsupplyanddemandmaynotbebroken,thesegentlemendrawtheir\"labour—supply……
chieflyfromtheirsmalltenants,whoareobligedtoattendwhenrequiredtodothelandlord’swork,atratesofwages,inmanyinstances,considerablyunderthecurrentratespaidtoordinarylabourers,andwithoutregardtotheinconvenienceorlosstothetenantofbeingobligedtoneglecthisownbusinessatcriticalperiodsofsowingorreaping。\"[137]
Theuncertaintyandirregularityofemployment,theconstantreturnandlongdurationofglutsoflabour,allthesesymptomsofarelativesurplus—population,figurethereforeinthereportsofthePoorLawadministration,assomanyhardshipsoftheagriculturalproletariat。Itwillberememberedthatwemet,intheEnglishagriculturalproletariat,withasimilarspectacle。
ButthedifferenceisthatinEngland,anindustrialcountry,theindustrialreserverecruitsitselffromthecountrydistricts,whilstinIreland,anagriculturalcountry,theagriculturalreserverecruitsitselffromthetowns,thecitiesofrefugeoftheexpelledagricultural,labourers。
Intheformer,thesupernumerariesofagriculturearetransformedintofactoryoperatives;inthelatter,thoseforcedintothetowns,whilstatthesametimetheypressonthewagesintowns,remainagriculturallabourers,andareconstantlysentbacktothecountrydistrictsinsearchofwork。
Theofficialinspectorssumupthematerialconditionoftheagriculturallabourerasfollows:\"Thoughlivingwiththestrictestfrugality,hisownwagesarebarelysufficienttoprovidefoodforanordinaryfamilyandpayhisrent\"andhedependsuponothersourcesforthemeansofclothinghimself,hiswife,andchildren……Theatmosphereofthesecabins,combinedwiththe。otherprivationstheyaresubjectedto,hasmadethisclassparticularlysusceptibletolowfeverandpulmonaryconsumption。\"[138]Afterthis,itisnowonderthat,accordingtotheunanimoustestimonyoftheinspectors,asombrediscontentrunsthroughtheranksofthisclass,thattheylongforthereturnofthepast,loathethepresent,despairofthefuture,givethemselvesup\"totheevilinfluenceofagitators,\"
andhaveonlyonefixedidea,toemigratetoAmerica。ThisisthelandofCockaigne,intowhichthegreatMalthusianpanacea,depopulation,hastransformedgreenErin。
WhatahappylifetheIrishfactoryoperativeleadsoneexamplewillshow:\"OnmyrecentvisittotheNorthofIreland,\"saystheEnglishFactoryInspector,RobertBaker,\"ImetwiththefollowingevidenceofeffortinanIrishskilledworkmantoaffordeducationtohischildren;andIgivehisevidenceverbatim,asItookitfromhismouth。Thathewasaskilledfactoryhand,maybeunderstoodwhenIsaythathewasemployedongoodsfortheManchestermarket。’Johnson。?Iamabeetlerandworkfrom6inthemorningtill11atnight,fromMondaytoFriday。Saturdayweleaveoffat6p。m。,andgetthreehoursofit(formealsandrest)。Ihavefivechildreninall。ForthisworkIget10s。6d。aweek,;mywifeworksherealso,andgets5s。aweek。Theoldestgirlwhois12,mindsthehouse。
Sheisalsocook,andalltheservantwehave。Shegetstheyoungonesreadyforschool。Agirlgoingpastthehousewakesmeathalfpastfiveinthemorning。Mywifegetsupandgoesalongwithme。Wegetnothing(toeat)beforewecometowork。Thechildof12takesdareofthelittlechildrenalltheday,andwegetnothingtillbreakfastateight。Ateightwegohome;Wegetteaonceaweek;atothertimeswegetstirabout,sometimesofoat—meal,sometimesofIndianmeal,asweareabletogetit。InthewinterwegetalittlesugarandwatertoourIndianmeal。Inthesummerwegetafewpotatoes,plantingasmallpatchourselves;。andwhentheyaredonewegetbacktostirabout。Sometimeswegetalittlemilkasitmaybe。Sowegoonfromdaytoday,Sundayandweekday,alwaysthesametheyearround。IamalwaysverymuchtiredwhenIhavedoneatnight。Wemayseeabitoffleshmeatsometimes,butveryseldom。Threeofourchildrenattendschool,forwhomwepay1d。
aweekahead。Ourrentis9d。aweek。Peatforfiringcosts1s。6d。afortnightattheverylowest。’\"[139]SuchareIrishwages,suchisIrishlife!
InfactthemiseryofIrelandisagainthetopicofthedayinEngland。
Attheendof1866andthebeginningof1867,oneoftheIrishlandmagnates,LordDufferin,setaboutitssolutioninTheTimes。\"WiemenschlichvonsolchgrossemHerrn!\"
FromTableE。wesawthat,during1864,of£4,368,610oftotalprofits,threesurplus—valuemakerspocketedonly£262,819;thatin1865,however,outof£4,669,979totalprofits,thesamethreevirtuosiof\"abstinence\"pocketed£274,528;in1864,26surplus—valuemakersreachedto£646,377;in1865,28surplus—valuemakersreachedto£736,448;in1864,121surplus—valuemakers,£1,076,912;
in1865,150surplus—valuemakers,£1,320,906;in1864,1,131surplus—valuemakers£2,150,818,nearlyhalfofthetotalannualprofit;in1865,1,194surplus—valuemakers,£2,418,833,morethanhalfofthetotalannualprofit。Butthelion’sshare,whichaninconceivablysmallnumberoflandmagnatesinEngland,ScotlandandIrelandswallowupoftheyearlynationalrental,issomonstrousthatthewisdomoftheEnglishStatedoesnotthinkfittoaffordthesamestatisticalmaterialsaboutthedistributionofrentsasaboutthedistributionofprofits。LordDufferinisoneofthoselandmagnates。Thatrent—rollsandprofitscaneverbe\"excessive,\"
orthattheirplethoraisinanywayconnectedwithplethoraofthepeople’smiseryis,ofcourse,anideaas\"disreputable\"as\"unsound。\"Hekeepstofacts。Thefactisthat,astheIrishpopulationdiminishes,theIrishrent—rollsswell;thatdepopulationbenefitsthelandlords,thereforealsobenefitsthesoil,and,therefore,thepeople,thatmereaccessoryofthesoil。Hedeclares,therefore,thatIrelandisstillover—populated,andthestreamofemigrationstillflowstoolazily。Tobeperfectlyhappy,Irelandmustgetridofatleastone—thirdofamillionoflabouringmen。
Letnomanimaginethatthislord,poeticintothebargain,isaphysicianoftheschoolofSangrado,whoasoftenashedidnotfindhispatientbetter,orderedphlebotomyandagainphlebotomy,untilthepatientlosthissicknessatthesametimeashisblood。LordDufferindemandsanewblood—lettingofone—thirdofamilliononly,insteadofabouttwomillions;
infact,withoutthegettingridof。these,themillenniuminErinisnottobe。Theproofiseasilygiven。
NUMBERANDEXTENTOFFARMSINIRELANDIN1864[140]
No。Acres(1)Farmsnotover1acre。48,65325,394
(2)Farmsover1,notover5acres。82,037288,916
(3)Farmsover5,notover15acres。176,3681,836,310
(4)Farmsover15,notover30acres。136,5783,051,343
(5)Farmsover30,notover50acres。71,9612,906,274
(6)Farmsover50,notover100acres。54,2473,983,880
(7)Farmsover100acres。31,9278,227,807
(8)TOTALAREA。?nbsp;26,319,924
Centralisationhasfrom1851to1861destroyedprincipallyfarmsofthefirstthreecategories,under1andnotover15acres。Theseaboveallmustdisappear。Thisgives307,058\"supernumerary\"farmers,andreckoningthefamiliesthelowaverageof4persons,1,228,232persons。Ontheextravagantsuppositionthat,aftertheagriculturalrevolutioniscompleteone—fourthoftheseareagainabsorbable,thereremainforemigration921,174persons。
Categories4,5,6,ofover15andnotover100acres,are,aswasknownlongsinceinEngland,toosmallforcapitalisticcultivationofcorn,andforsheep—breedingarealmostvanishingquantities。Onthesamesuppositionasbefore,therefore,therearefurther788,761personstoemigrate;total,1,709,532。AndasI’appétitvientenmangeant,Rentroll’seyeswillsoondiscoverthatIreland,with31/2millions,isstillalwaysmiserable,andmiserablebecausesheisover—populated。Thereforeherdepopulationmustgoyetfurther,thatthusshemayfulfilhertruedestiny,thatofanEnglishsheep—walkandcattle—pasture。\"[141]
Likeallgoodthingsinthisbadworld,thisprofitablemethodhasitsdrawbacks。WiththeaccumulationofrentsinIreland,theaccumulationoftheIrishinAmericakeepspace。TheIrishman,banishedbysheepandox,re—appearsontheothersideoftheoceanasaFenian,andfacetofacewiththeoldqueenoftheseasrises,threateningandmorethreatening,theyounggiantRepublic:
AcerbafataRomanosaguntScelusquefraternaenecis。
Footnotes[1]KarlMarx,l。c。,\"Aégalitéd’oppressiondesmasses,plusunpaysadeprolétairesetplusilestriche。\"(Colins,\"L’EconomiePolitique。SourcedesRévolutionsetdesUtopies,prétenduesSocialistes。\"Paris,1857,t。III。,p。331。)Our\"prolétarian\"iseconomicallynoneotherthanthewage—labourer,whoproducesandincreasescapital,andisthrownoutonthestreets,assoonasheissuperfluousfortheneedsofaggrandigementof\"Monsieurcapital,\"asPecqueurcallsthisperson。\"Thesicklyproletarianoftheprimitiveforest\",isaprettyRoscherianfancy。Theprimitiveforesterisowneroftheprimitiveforest,andusestheprimitiveforestashispropertywiththefreedomofanorang—outang。
Heisnot,therefore,aproletarian。Thiswouldonlybethecase,iftheprimitiveforestexploitedhim,insteadofbeingexploitedbyhim。Asfarashishealthisconcerned,suchamanwouldwellbearcomparison,notonlywiththemodernproletarian,butalsowiththesyphiliticandscrofulousupperclasses。But,nodoubt,HerrWilhelmRoscher,by\"primitiveforest\"
meanshisnativeheathofLüneburg。
[2]JohnBellers,l。c。,p。2。
[3]BernarddeMandeville:\"TheFableoftheBees,\"5thedition,London,1728。
Remarks,pp。212,213,328。\"Temperatelivingandconstantemploymentisthedirectroad,forthepoor,torationalhappiness\"[bywhichhemostprobablymeanslongworking—daysandlittlemeansofsubsistence],\"andtorichesandstrengthforthestate\"(viz。,forthelandlords,capitalists,andtheirpoliticaldignitariesandagents)。(\"AnEssayonTradeandCommerce,\"London,1770,p。54。)
[4]Edenshouldhaveasked,whosecreaturesthenare\"thecivilinstitutions\"?
Fromhisstandpointofjuridicalillusion,hedoesnotregardthelawasaproductofthematerialrelationsofproduction,butconverselytherelationsofproductionasproductsofthelaw。LinguetoverthrewMontesquieu’sillusory\"Espritdeslois\"withoneword:\"L’espritdeslois,c’estlapropriété。\"
[5]Eden,l。c。,Vol。1,bookI。,chapter1,pp。1,2,andpreface,p。xx。
[6]IfthereaderremindsmeofMalthus,whose\"EssayonPopulation\"appearedin1798,Iremindhimthatthisworkinitsfirstformisnothingmorethanaschoolboyish,superficialplagiaryofDePoe,SirJamesSteuart,Townsend,Franklin,Wallace,&c。,anddoesnotcontainasinglesentencethoughtoutbyhimself。Thegreatsensationthispamphletcaused,wasduesolelytopartyinterest。TheFrenchRevolutionhadfoundpassionatedefendersintheUnitedKingdom;the\"principleofpopulation,\"slowlyworkedoutintheeighteenthcentury,andthen,inthemidstofagreatsocialcrisis,proclaimedwithdrumsandtrumpetsastheinfallibleantidotetotheteachingsofCondorcet,&c。,wasgreetedwithjubilancebytheEnglisholigarchyasthegreatdestroyerofallhankeringsafterhumandevelopment。Malthus,hugelyastonishedathissuccess,gavehimselftostuffingintohisbookmaterialssuperficiallycompiled,andaddingtoitnewmatter,notdiscoveredbutannexedbyhim。Notefurther:AlthoughMalthuswasaparsonoftheEnglishStateChurch,hehadtakenthemonasticvowofcelibacy?oneoftheconditionsofholdingaFellowshipinProtestantCambridgeUniversity:
\"Socioscollegiorummaritosessenonpermittimus,sedstatimpostquamquisuxoremduxeritsociuscollegiidesinatesse。\"(\"ReportsofCambridgeUniversityCommission,\"p。172。)ThiscircumstancefavourablydistinguishesMalthusfromtheotherProtestantparsons,whohaveshuffledoffthecommandenjoiningcelibacyofthepriesthoodandhavetaken,\"Befruitfulandmultiply,\"
astheirspecialBiblicalmissioninsuchadegreethattheygenerallycontributetotheincreaseofpopulationtoareallyunbecomingextent,whilsttheypreachatthesametimetothelabourersthe\"principleofpopulation。\"Itischaracteristicthattheeconomicfallofman,theAdam’sapple,theurgentappetite,\"thecheckswhichtendtoblunttheshaftsofCupid,\"asParsonTownsendwaggishlyputsit,thatthisdelicatequestionwasandismonopolisedbytheReverendsofProtestantTheology,orratheroftheProtestantChurch。WiththeexceptionoftheVenetianmonk,Ortes,anoriginalandcleverwriter,mostofthepopulation—theoryteachersareProtestantparsons。Forinstance,Bruckner,\"ThéorieduSystèmeanimal,\"Leyde,1767,inwhichthewholesubjectofthemodernpopulationtheoryisexhausted,andtowhichthepassingquarrelbetweenQuesnayandhispupil,theelderMirabeau,fumishedideasonthesametopic;thenParsonWallace,ParsonTownsend,ParsonMalthusandhispupil,thearch—ParsonThomasChalmers,tosaynothingoflesserreverendscribblersinthisline。
Originally,PoliticalEconomywasstudiedbyphilosopherslikeHobbes,Locke,Hume;bybusinessmenandstatesmen,likeThomasMore,Temple,Sully,DeWitt,North,Law,Vanderlint,Cantillon,Franklin;andespecially,andwiththegreatestsuccess,bymedicalmenlikePetty,Barbon,Mandeville,Quesnay。Eveninthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,theRev。Mr。Tucker,anotableeconomistofhistime,excusedhimselfformeddlingwiththethingsofMammon。Lateron,andintruthwiththisvery\"Principleofpopulation,\"
struckthehouroftheProtestantparsons。Petty,whoregardedthepopulationasthebasisofwealth,andwas,likeAdamSmith,anoutspokenfoetoparsons,says,asifhehadapresentimentoftheirbunglinginterference,\"thatReligionbestflourisheswhenthePriestsaremostmortified,aswasbeforesaidoftheLaw,whichbestflourishethwhenlawyershaveleasttodo。\"
HeadvisestheProtestantpriests,therefore,ifthey,onceforall,willnotfollowtheApostlePauland\"mortify\"themselvesbycelibacy,\"nottobreedmoreChurchmenthantheBenefices,astheynowstandsharedout,willreceive,thatistosay,iftherebeplacesforabouttwelvethousandinEnglandandWales,itwillnotbesafetobreedup24,000ministers,forthenthetwelvethousandwhichareunprovidedfor,willseekwayshowtogetthemselvesalivelihood,whichtheycannotdomoreeasilythanbypersuadingthepeoplethatthetwelvethousandincumbentsdopoisonorstarvetheirsouls,andmisguidethemintheirwaytoHeaven。\"(Petty:
\"ATreatiseofTaxesandContributions,\"London,1667,p。57。)AdamSmith’spositionwiththeProtestantpriesthoodofhistimeisshownbythefollowing。
In\"ALettertoA。Smith,L。L。D。OntheLife,Death,andPhilosophyofhisFriend,DavidHume。ByoneofthePeoplecalledChristians,\"4thEdition,Oxford,1784,Dr。Horne,BishopofNorwich,reprovesAdamSmith,becauseinapublishedlettertoMr。Strahan,he\"embalmedhisfriendDavid\"(sc。
Hume);becausehetoldtheworldhow\"HumeamusedhimselfonhisdeathbedwithLucianandWhist,\"andbecauseheevenhadtheimpudencetowriteofHume:\"Ihavealwaysconsideredhim,bothinhislife—timeandsincehisdeath,asapproachingasnearlytotheideaofaperfectlywiseandvirtuousman,as,perhaps,thenatureofhumanfrailtywillpermit。\"Thebishopcriesout,inapassion:\"Isitrightinyou,Sir,toholduptoourviewas’perfectlywiseandvirtuous,’thecharacterandconductofone,whoseemstohavebeenpossessedwithanincurableantipathytoallthatiscalledReligion;andwhostrainedeverynervetoexplode,suppressandextirpatethespiritofitamongmen,thatitsveryname,ifhecouldeffectit,mightnomorebehadinremembrance?\"(l。c。,p。
8。)\"Butletnottheloversoftruthbediscouraged。Atheismcannotbeoflongcontinuance。\"(P。17。)AdamSmith,\"hadtheatrociouswickednesstopropagateatheismthroughtheland(viz。,byhis\"TheoryofMoralSentiments\")。
Uponthewhole,Doctor,yourmeaningisgood;butIthinkyouwillnotsucceedthistime。Youwouldpersuadeus,bytheexampleofDavidHume,Esq。,thatatheismistheonlycordialforlowspirits,andtheproperantidoteagainstthefearofdeath……YoumaysmileoverBabyloninruinsandcongratulatethehardenedPharaohonhisoverthrowintheRedSea。\"(l。c。,pp。21,22。)Oneorthodoxindividual,amongstAdamSmith’scollegefriends,writesafterhisdeath:\"Smith’swell—placedaffectionforHume……hinderedhimfrombeingaChristian……Whenhemetwithhonestmenwhomheliked……hewouldbelievealmostanythingtheysaid。HadhebeenafriendoftheworthyingeniousHorroxhewouidhavebelievedthatthemoonsometimesdisappearedinaclcarskywithouttheinterpositionofacloud……Heapproachedtorepublicanisminhispoliticalprinciples。\"(\"TheBee。\"ByJamesAnderson,18Vols。,Vol。3,pp。166,165,Edinburgh,1791—93。)ParsonThomasChalmershashissuspicionsastoAdamSmithhavinginventedthecategoryof\"unproductivelabourers,\"
solelyfortheProtestantparsons,inspiteoftheirblessedworkinthevineyardoftheLord。
[7]\"Thelimit,however,totheemploymentofboththeoperativeandthelaboureristhesame;namely,thepossibilityoftheemployerrealisingaprofitontheproduceoftheirindustry。Iftherateofwagesissuchastoreducethemaster’sgainsbelowtheaverageprofitofcapital,hewillceasetoemploythem,orhewillonlyemploythemonconditionofsubmissiontoareductionofwages。\"(JohnWade,l。c。,p。241。)
[8]NotebytheInstituteofMarxism—LeninismtotheRussianedition:TheMS
inthefirstcasesays\"little\"andinthesecondcase\"much\";thecorrectionhasbeenintroducedaccordingtotheauthorisedFrenchtranslation。
[9]Cf。KarlMarx:\"ZurKritikderPolitischenOekonomie,\"pp。166,seq。
[10]\"Ifwenowreturntoourfirstinquiry,whereinitwasshownthatcapitalitselfisonlytheresultofhumanlabour……itseemsquiteincomprehensiblethatmancanhavefallenunderthedominationofcapital,hisownproduct;
canbesubordinatedtoit;andasinrealitythisisbeyonddisputethecase,involuntarilythequestionarises:Howhasthelabourerbeenabletopassfrombeingmasterofcapital?asitscreator?tobeingitsslave?\"
(VonThünen,\"DerisolierteStaat\"Partii。,Sectionii。,Rostock,1863,pp。5,6。)ItisThünen’smerittohaveaskedthisquestion。
Hisanswerissimplychildish。
[12]Noteinthe4thGermanedition。?ThelatestEnglishandAmerican\"trusts\"arealreadystrivingtoattainthisgoalbyattemptingtouniteatleastallthelarge—scaleconcernsinonebranchofindustryintoonegreatjoint—stockcompanywithapracticalmonopoly。F。E。
[13]Noteinthe3rdGermanedition。?InMarx’scopythereisherethemarginalnote:\"Herenoteforworkingoutlater;iftheextensionisonlyquantitative,thenforagreaterandasmallercapitalinthesamebranchofbusinesstheprofitsareasthemagnitudesofthecapitalsadvanced。
Ifthequantitativeextensioninducesqualitativechange,thentherateofprofitonthelargercapitalrisessimultaneously。\"F。E。
[14]ThecensusofEnglandandWalesshows:allpersonsemployedinagriculture(landlords,farmers,gardeners,shepherds,&c。,included):1851,2,011,447;
1861,1,924,110。Fall,87,337。Worstedmanufacture:1851,102,714persons;
1861,79,242。Silkweaving:1851,111,940;1861,101,678。Calico—printing:
1851,12,098;1861,12,556。Asmallrisethat,inthefaceoftheenormousextensionofthisindustryandimplyingagreatfallproportionallyinthenumberoflabourersemployed。Hat—making:1851,15,957;1861,13,814。
Straw—hatandbonnet—making:1851,20,393;1861,18,176。Malting:1851,10,566;1861,10,677。Chandlery,1851,4,949;1861,4,686。Thisfallisdue,besidesothercauses,totheincreaseinlightingbygas。Comb—making?1851,2,038;1861,1,478。Sawyers:1851,30,552;1861,31,647?asmallriseinconsequenceoftheincreaseofsawing—machines。Nail—making:1851,26,940;1861,26,130?fallinconsequenceofthecompetitionofmachinery。
Tinandcopper—mining:1851,31,360;1861,32,041。Ontheotherhand:Cotton—spinningandweaving:1851,371,777;1861,456,646。Coal—mining:1851,183,389,1861,246,613,\"Theincreaseoflabourersisgenerallygreatest,since1851,insuchbranchesofindustryinwhichmachineryhasnotuptothepresentbeenemployedwithsuccess。\"(CensusofEnglandandWalesfor1861。
Vol。Ill。London,1863,p。36。)
[15]Addedinthe4thGermanedition。?Thelawofprogressivediminutionoftherelativemagnitudeofvariablecapitalanditseffectontheconditionoftheclassofwage—workersisconjecturedratherthanunderstoodbysomeoftheprominenteconomistsoftheclassicalschool。ThegreatestservicewasrenderedherebyJohnBarton,althoughhe,likealltherest,lumpstogetherconstantandfixedcapital,variableandcirculatingcapital。
Hesays:
\"Thedemandforlabourdependsontheincreaseofcirculating,andnotoffixedcapital。Wereittruethattheproportionbetweenthesetwosortsofcapitalisthesameatalltimes,andinallcircumstances,then,indeed,itfollowsthatthenumberoflabourersemployedisinproportiontothewealthofthestate。Butsuchapropositionhasnotthesemblanceofprobability。
Asartsarecultivated,andcivilisationisextended,fixedcapitalbearsalargerandlargerproportiontocirculatingcapital。TheamountoffixedcapitalemployedintheproductionofapieceofBritishmuslinisatleastahundred,probablyathousandtimesgreaterthanthatemployedinasimilarpieceofIndianmuslin。Andtheproportionofcirculatingcapitalisahundredorthousandtimesless……thewholeoftheannualsavings,addedtothefixedcapital,wouldhavenoeffectinincreasingthedemandforlabour。\"(JohnBarton,\"ObscrvationsontheCircumstanceswhichInfluencetheConditionoftheLabouringClassesofSociety。\"London,1817,pp。16,17。)\"Thesamecausewhichmayincreasethenetrevenueofthecountrymayatthesametimerenderthepopulationredundant,anddeterioratetheconditionofthelabourer。\"(Ricardo,l。c。,p。469。)Withincreaseofcapital,\"thedemand[forlabour]willbeinadiminishingratio。\"(Ibid。,p。480,Note。)\"Theamountofcapitaldevotedtothemaintenanceoflabourmayvary,independentlyofanychangesinthewholeamountofcapital……
Greatfluctuationsintheamountofemployment,andgreatsufferingmaybecomemorefrequentascapitalitselfbecomesmoreplentiful。\"(RichardJones,\"AnIntroductoryLectureonPol。Econ。,\"Lond。1833,p。13)\"Demand[forlabour]willrise……notinproportiontotheaccumulationofthegeneralcapital……Everyaugmentation,therefore,inthenationalstockdestinedforreproduction,comes,intheprogressofsociety,tohavelessandlessinfluenceupontheconditionofthelabourer。\"(Ramsay,l。c。,pp。90,91。)