salt，coals，andanumberofothernecessarymeansofsubsistence。[41]Gladstone’snextBudgetspeechofApril7th，1864，isaPindaricdithyrambusontheadvanceofsurplus—value—makingandthehappinessofthepeople\"temperedbypoverty。\"Hespeaksofmasses\"ontheborder\"ofpauperism，ofbranchesoftradeinwhich\"wageshavenotincreased，\"andfinallysumsupthehappinessoftheworking—classinthewords:\"humanlifeisbut，inninecasesoutoften，astruggleforexistence。\"[42]ProfessorFawcett，notboundlikeGladstonebyofficialconsiderations，declaresroundly:\"Idonot，ofcourse，denythatmoneywageshavebeenaugmentedbythisincreaseofcapital（inthelasttenyears），butthisapparentadvantageistoagreatextentlost，becausemanyofthenecessariesoflifearebecomingdearer\"（hebelievesbecauseofthefallinvalueofthepreciousmetals）……\"therichgrowrapidlyricher，whilstthereisnoperceptibleadvanceinthecomfortenjoyedbytheindustrialclasses……They（thelabourers）becomealmosttheslavesofthetradesman，towhomtheyowemoney。\"[43]
Inthechaptersonthe\"working—day\"and\"machinery，\"thereaderhasseenunderwhatcircumstancestheBritishworking—classcreatedan\"intoxicatingaugmentationofwealthandpower\"forthepropertiedclasses。Therewewerechieflyconcernedwiththesocialfunctioningofthelabourer。Butforafullelucidationofthelawofaccumulation，hisconditionoutsidetheworkshopmustalsobelookedat，hisconditionastofoodanddwelling。
Thelimitsofthisbookcompelustoconcernourselveschieflywiththeworstpaidpartoftheindustrialproletariat，andwiththeagriculturallabourers，whotogetherformthemajorityoftheworking—class。
Butfirst，onewordonofficialpauperism，oronthatpartoftheworking—classwhichhasforfeiteditsconditionofexistence（thesaleoflabour—power），andvegetatesuponpublicalms。TheofficiallistofpaupersnumberedinEngland[44]851，369
persons;in1856，877，767;in1865，971，433。Inconsequenceofthecottonfamine，itgrewintheyears1863and1864to1，079，382and1，014，978。
Thecrisisof1866，whichfellmostheavilyonLondon，createdinthiscentreoftheworld—market，morepopulousthanthekingdomofScotland，anincreaseofpauperismfortheyear1866of19。5%comparedwith1865，andof24。4%comparedwith1864，andastillgreaterincreaseforthefirstmonthsof1867ascomparedwith1866。Fromtheanalysisofthestatisticsofpauperism，twopointsaretobetaken。Ontheonehand，thefluctuationupanddownofthenumberofpaupers，reflectstheperiodicchangesoftheindustrialcycle。Ontheother，theofficialstatisticsbecomemoreandmoremisleadingastotheactualextentofpauperisminproportionas，withtheaccumulationofcapital，theclass—struggle，and，therefore，theclass—consciousnessoftheworking—men，develop。E。g。，thebarbarityinthetreatmentofthepaupers，atwhichtheEnglishPress（TheTimes，PallMallGazette，etc。）havecriedoutsoloudlyduringthelasttwoyears，isofancientdate。F。Engelsshowedin1844exactlythesamehorrors，exactlythesametransientcantingoutcriesof\"sensationalliterature。\"
Butfrightfulincreaseof\"deathsbystarvation\"inLondonduringthelasttenyearsprovesbeyonddoubtthegrowinghorrorinwhichtheworking—peopleholdtheslaveryoftheworkhouse，thatplaceofpunishmentformisery。[45]
B。TheBadlyPaidStrataoftheBritishIndustrialClassDuringthecottonfamineof1862，Dr。SmithwaschargedbythePrivyCouncilwithaninquiryintotheconditionsofnourishmentofthedistressedoperativesinLancashireandCheshire。Hisobservationsduringmanyprecedingyearshadledhimtotheconclusionthat\"toavertstarvationdiseases，\"thedailyfoodofanaveragewomanoughttocontainatleast3，900grainsofcarbonwith180grainsofnitrogen;thedailyfoodofanaverageman，atleast4，300grainsofcarbonwith200grainsofnitrogen;forwomen，aboutthesamequantityofnutritiveelementsasarecontainedin2lbs。ofgoodwheatenbread，formen1/9more;fortheweeklyaverageofadultmenandwomen，atleast28，600grainsofcarbonand1，330grainsofnitrogen。Hiscalculationwaspracticallyconfirmedinasurprisingmannerbyitsagreementwiththemiserablequantityofnourishmenttowhichwanthadforceddowntheconsumptionofthecottonoperatives。Thiswas，inDecember，1862，29，211grainsofcarbon，and1，295grainsofnitrogenweekly。
Intheyear1863，thePrivyCouncilorderedaninquiryintothestateofdistressoftheworst—nourishedpartoftheEnglishworking—class。Dr。
Simon，medicalofficertothePrivyCouncil，choseforthisworktheabove—mentionedDr。Smith。Hisinquiryrangesontheonehandovertheagriculturallabourers，ontheother，oversilk—weavers，needlewomen，kid—glovers，stocking—weavers，glove—weavers，andshoemakers。Thelattercategoriesare，withtheexceptionofthestocking—weavers，exclusivelytown—dwellers。Itwasmadearuleintheinquirytoselectineachcategorythemosthealthyfamilies，andthosecomparativelyinthebestcircumstances。
Asageneralresultitwasfoundthat\"inonlyoneoftheexaminedclassesofin—dooroperativesdidtheaveragenitrogen—supplyjustexceed，whileinanotheritnearlyreached，theestimatedstandardofbaresufficiency[i。e。，sufficienttoavertstarvationdiseases]，andthatintwoclassestherewasdefect？inone，averylargedefect？ofbothnitrogenandcarbon。Moreover，asregardstheexaminedfamiliesoftheagriculturalpopulation，itappearedthatmorethanafifthwerewithlessthantheestimatedsufficiencyofcarbonaceousfood，thatmorethanone—thirdwerewithlessthantheestimatedsufficiencyofnitrogenousfood，andthatinthreecounties（Berkshire，Oxfordshire，andSomersetshire），insufficiencyofnitrogenousfoodwastheaveragelocaldietp;[46]Amongtheagriculturallabourers，thoseofEngland，thewealthiestpartoftheUnitedKingdom，weretheworstfed。[47]Theinsufficiencyoffoodamongtheagriculturallabourers，fell，asarule，chieflyonthewomenandchildren，for\"themanmusteattodohiswork。\"Stillgreaterpenuryravagedthetown—workersexamined。\"Theyaresoillfedthatassuredlyamongthemtheremustbemanycasesofsevereandinjuriousprivation。\"[48]（\"Privation\"ofthecapitalistallthis！i。e。，\"abstinence\"frompayingforthemeansofsubsistenceabsolutelynecessaryforthemerevegetationofhis\"hands。\"）
Thefollowingtableshowstheconditionsofnourishmentoftheabove—namedcategoriesofpurelytown—dwellingwork—people，ascomparedwiththeminimumassumedbyDr。Smith，andwiththefood—allowanceofthecottonoperativesduringthetimeoftheirgreatestdistress:
BothSexesAverageweeklycarbonAverageweeklynitrogenFivein—dooroccupations28，876grains1，192grainsUnemployedLancashireOperatives28，211grains1，295grainsMinimumquantitytobeallowedtotheLancashireOperatives，equalnumberofmalesandfemales28，600grains1，330grainsOnehalf，or60/125，oftheindustriallabourcategoriesinvestigated，hadabsolutelynobeer，28%nomilk。Theweeklyaverageoftheliquidmeansofnourishmentinthefamiliesvariedfromsevenouncesintheneedle—womento243/4ouncesinthestocking—makers。Themajorityofthosewhodidnotobtainmilkwereneedle—womeninLondon。Thequantityofbread—stuffsconsumedweeklyvariedfrom73/4lbs。fortheneedle—womento111/2lbs。fortheshoemakers，andgaveatotalaverageof9。9lbs。
peradultweekly。Sugar（treacle，etc。）variedfrom4ouncesweeklyforthekid—gloversto11ouncesforthestockingmakers;andthetotalaverageperweekforallcategorieswas8ouncesperadultweekly。Totalweeklyaverageofbutter（fat，etc。）5ouncesperadult。Theweeklyaverageofmeat（bacon，etc。）variedfrom71/4ouncesforthesilk—weavers，to18
1/4ouncesforthekid—glovers;totalaverageforthedifferentcategories13。6ounces。Theweeklycostoffoodperadult，gavethefollowingaveragefigures;silk—weavers2s。21/2d。，needle—women2s。7d。，kid—glovers2s。
91/2d。，shoemakers2s73/4d。，stocking—weavers2s。61/4d。Forthesilk—weaversofMacclesfieldtheaveragewasonly1s。81/2d。Theworstcategoriesweretheneedle—women，silk—weaversandkid—glovers。[50]Ofthesefacts，Dr。SimoninhisGeneralHealthReportsays:\"Thatcasesareinnumerableinwhichdefectivedietisthecauseortheaggravatorofdisease，canbeaffirmedbyanyonewhoisconversantwithpoorlawmedicalpractice，orwiththewardsandout—patientroomsofhospitals……
Yetinthispointofview，thereis，inmyopinion，averyimportantsanitarycontexttobeadded。Itmustberememberedthatprivationoffoodisveryreluctantlyborne，andthatasarulegreatpoornessofdietwillonlycomewhenotherprivationshaveprecededit。Longbeforeinsufficiencyofdietisamatterofhygienicconcern，longbeforethephysiologistwouldthinkofcountingthegrainsofnitrogenandcarbonwhichintervenebetweenlifeandstarvation，thehouseholdwillhavebeenutterlydestituteofmaterialcomfort;clothingandfuelwillhavebeenevenscantierthanfood？againstinclemenciesofweathertherewillhavebeennoadequateprotection？dwellingspacewillhavebeenstintedtothedegreeinwhichover—crowdingproducesorincreasesdisease;ofhouseholdutensilsandfurnituretherewillhavebeenscarcelyany—evencleanlinesswillhavebeenfoundcostlyordifficult，andiftherestillbeself—respectfulendeavourstomaintainit，everysuchendeavourwillrepresentadditionalpangsofhunger。Thehome，too，willbewheresheltercanbecheapestbought;inquarterswherecommonlythereisleastfruitofsanitarysupervision，leastdrainage，leastscavenging，leastsuppressionofpublicnuisances，leastorworstwatersupply，and，ifintown，leastlightandaip;Sucharethesanitarydangerstowhichpovertyisalmostcertainlyexposed，whenitispovertyenoughtoimplyscantinessoffood。Andwhilethesumofthemisofterriblemagnitudeagainstlife，themerescantinessoffoodisinitselfofveryseriousmoment……Thesearepainfulreflections，especiallywhenitisrememberedthatthepovertytowhichtheyadvertisnotthedeservedpovertyofidleness。Inallcasesitisthepovertyofworkingpopulations。Indeed，asregardsthein—dooroperatives，theworkwhichobtainsthescantypittanceoffood，isforthemostpartexcessivelyprolonged。Yetevidentlyitisonlyinaqualifiedsensethattheworkcanbedeemedself—supporting……Andonaverylargescalethenominalself—supportcanbeonlyacircuit，longerorshorter，topauperism。\"[51]
Theintimateconnexionbetweenthepangsofhungerofthemostindustriouslayersoftheworking—class，andtheextravagantconsumption，coarseorrefined，oftherich，forwhichcapitalistaccumulationisthebasis，revealsitselfonlywhentheeconomiclawsareknown。Itisotherwisewiththe\"housingofthepoor。\"Everyunprejudicedobserverseesthatthegreaterthecentralisationofthemeansofproduction，thegreateristhecorrespondingheapingtogetherofthelabourers，withinagivenspace;thatthereforetheswiftercapitalisticaccumulation，themoremiserablearethedwellingsoftheworking—people。\"Improvements\"oftowns，accompanyingtheincreaseofwealth，bythedemolitionofbadlybuiltquarters，theerectionofpalacesforbanks，warehouses，&c。，thewideningofstreetsforbusinesstraffic，forthecarriagesofluxury，andfortheintroductionoftramways，&c。，driveawaythepoorintoevenworseandmorecrowdedhidingplaces。Ontheotherhand，everyoneknowsthatthedearnessofdwellingsisininverseratiototheirexcellence，andthattheminesofmiseryareexploitedbyhousespeculatorswithmoreprofitorlesscostthaneverweretheminesofPotosi。Theantagonisticcharacterofcapitalistaccumulation，andthereforeofthecapitalisticrelationsofpropertygenerally，[52]isheresoevident，thateventheofficialEnglishreportsonthissubjectteemwithheterodoxonslaughtson\"propertyanditsrights。\"Withthedevelopmentofindustry，withtheaccumulationofcapital，withthegrowthand\"improvement\"
oftowns，theevilmakessuchprogressthatthemerefearofcontagiousdiseaseswhichdonotspareeven\"respectability，\"broughtintoexistencefrom1847to1864nolessthan10ActsofParliamentonsanitation，andthatthefrightenedbourgeoisinsometowns，asLiverpool，Glasgow，&c。，tookstrenuousmeasuresthroughtheirmunicipalities。NeverthelessDr。
Simon，inhisreportof1865，says:\"Speakinggenerally，itmaybesaidthattheevilsareuncontrolledinEngland。\"ByorderofthePrivyCouncil，in1864，aninquirywasmadeintotheconditionsofthehousingoftheagriculturallabourers，in1865ofthepoorerclassesinthetowns。TheresultsoftheadmirableworkofDr。JulianHunteraretobefoundintheseventh（1865）andeighth（1866）exportson\"PublicHealth。\"Totheagriculturallabourers，Ishallcomelater。Ontheconditionoftowndwellings，Iquote，aspreliminary，ageneralremarkofDr。Simon。\"Althoughmyofficialpointofview，\"hesays，\"isoneexclusivelyphysical，commonhumanityrequiresthattheotheraspectofthisevilshouldnotbeignored……Initshigherdegreesit[i。e。，over—crowding]almostnecessarilyinvolvessuchnegationofalldelicacy，suchuncleanconfusionofbodiesandbodilyfunctions，suchexposureofanimalandsexualnakedness，asisratherbestialthanhuman。Tobesubjecttotheseinfluencesisadegradationwhichmustbecomedeeperanddeeperforthoseonwhomitcontinuestowork。Tochildrenwhoarebornunderitscurse，itmustoftenbeaverybaptismintoinfamy。
Andbeyondallmeasurehopelessisthewishthatpersonsthuscircumstancedshouldeverinotherrespectsaspiretothatatmosphereofcivilisationwhichhasitsessenceinphysicalandmoralcleanliness。\"[53]
Londontakesthefirstplaceinover—crowdedhabitations，absolutelyunfitforhumanbeings。\"Hefeelsclear，\"saysDr。Hunter，\"ontwopoints;first，thatthereareabout20largecoloniesinLondon，ofabout10，000personseach，whosemiserableconditionexceedsalmostanythinghehasseenelsewhereinEngland，andisalmostentirelytheresultoftheirbadhouseaccommodation;andsecond，thatthecrowdedanddilapidatedconditionofthehousesofthesecoloniesismuchworsethanwasthecase20yearsago。\"[54]\"ItisnottoomuchtosaythatlifeinpartsofLondonandNewcastleisinfernal。\"[55]
Further，thebetter—offpartoftheworking—class，togetherwiththesmallshopkeepersandotherelementsofthelowermiddleclass，fallsinLondonmoreandmoreunderthecurseofthesevileconditionsofdwelling，inproportionas\"improvements，\"andwiththemthedemolitionofoldstreetsandhouses，advance，asfactoriesandtheaffluxofhumanbeingsgrowinthemetropolis，andfinallyashouserentsrisewiththeground—rents。
\"Rentshavebecomesoheavythatfewlabouringmencanaffordmorethanoneroom。\"[56]Thereisalmostnohouse—propertyinLondonthatisnotoverburdenedwithanumberofmiddlemen。ForthepriceoflandinLondonisalwaysveryhighincomparisonwithitsyearlyrevenue，andthereforeeverybuyerspeculatesongettingridofitagainatajuryprice（theexpropriationvaluationfixedbyjurymen），oronpocketinganextraordinaryincreaseofvaluearisingfromtheneighbourhoodofsomelargeestablishment。Asaconsequenceofthisthereisaregulartradeinthepurchaseof\"fag—endsofleases。\"\"Gentlemeninthisbusinessmaybefairlyexpectedtodoastheydo？getalltheycanfromthetenantswhiletheyhavethem，andleaveaslittleastheycanfortheirsuccessors。;[57]
Therentsareweekly，andthesegentlemenrunnorisk。InconsequenceofthemakingofrailroadsintheCity，\"thespectaclehaslatelybeenseenintheEastofLondonofanumberoffamilieswanderingaboutsomeSaturdaynightwiththeirscantyworldlygoodsontheirbacks，withoutanyrestingplacebuttheworkhouse。\"[58]Theworkhousesarealreadyover—crowded。andthe\"improvements\"alreadysanctionedbyParliamentareonlyjustbegun。Iflabourersaredrivenawaybythedemolitionoftheiroldhouses，theydonotleavetheiroldparish，oratmosttheysettledownonitsborders，asnearastheycangettoit。\"Theytry，ofcourse，toremainasnearaspossibletotheirworkshops。Theinhabitantsdonotgobeyondthesameorthenextparish，partingtheirtwo—roomtenementsintosinglerooms，andcrowdingeventhose……Evenatanadvancedrent，thepeoplewhoaredisplacedwillhardlybeabletogetanaccommodationsogoodasthemeagreonetheyhaveleft……Halftheworkmen……oftheStrand……walkedtwomilestotheirwork。\"[59]ThissameStrand，amainthoroughfarewhichgivesstrangersanimposingideaofthewealthofLondon，mayserveasanexampleofthepackingtogetherofhumanbeingsinthattown。Inoneofitsparishes，theOfficerofHealthreckoned581personsperacre，althoughhalfthewidthoftheThameswasreckonedin。Itwillbeself—understoodthateverysanitarymeasure，which，ashasbeenthecasehithertoinLondon，huntsthelabourersfromonequarter，bydemolishinguninhabitablehouses，servesonlytocrowdthemtogetheryetmorecloselyinanother。\"Either，\"saysDr。Hunter，\"thewholeproceedingwillofnecessitystopasanabsurdity，orthepubliccompassion（！）beeffectuallyarousedtotheobligationwhichmaynowbewithoutexaggerationcallednational，ofsupplyingcovertothosewhobyreasonoftheirhavingnocapital，cannotprovideitforthemselves，thoughtheycanbyperiodicalpaymentsrewardthosewho，willprovideitforthem。\"[60]Admirethiscapitalisticjustice！Theowner，ofland，ofhouses，thebusinessman，whenexpropriatedby\"improvements\"suchasrailroads，thebuildingofnewstreets，&c。，notonlyreceivesfullindemnity。Hemust，accordingtolaw，humananddivine，becomfortedforhisenforced\"abstinence\"overandabovethisbyathumpingprofit。Thelabourer，withhiswifeandchildandchattels，isthrownoutintothestreet，and？ifhecrowdsintoolargenumberstowardsquartersofthetownwherethevestriesinsistondecency，heisprosecutedinthenameofsanitation;
ExceptLondon，therewasatthebeginningofthe19thcenturynosingletowninEnglandof100，000inhabitants。Onlyfivehadmorethan50，000。
Nowthereare28townswithmorethan50，000inhabitants。\"Theresultofthischangeisnotonlythattheclassoftownpeopleisenormouslyincreased，buttheoldclose—packedlittletownsarenowcentres，builtroundoneveryside，opennowheretoair，andbeingnolongeragreeabletotherichareabandonedbythemforthepleasanteroutskirts。Thesuccessorsoftheserichareoccupyingthelargerhousesattherateofafamilytoeachroom[……andfindaccommodationfortwoorthreelodgers……]andapopulation，forwhichthehouseswerenotintendedandquiteunfit，hasbeencreated，whosesurroundingsaretrulydegradingtotheadultsandruinoustothechildren。\"[61]Themorerapidlycapitalaccumulatesinanindustrialorcommercialtown，themorerapidlyflowsthestreamofexploitablehumanmaterial，themoremiserablearetheimproviseddwellingsofthelabourers。
Newcastle—on—Tyne，asthecentreofacoalandirondistrictofgrowingproductiveness，takesthenextplaceafterLondoninthehousinginferno。
Notlessthan34，000personslivethereinsinglerooms。Becauseoftheirabsolutedangertothecommunity，housesingreatnumbershavelatelybeendestroyedbytheauthoritiesinNewcastleandGateshead。Thebuildingofnewhousesprogressesveryslowly，businessveryquickly。Thetownwas，therefore，in1865，morefullthanever。Scarcelyaroomwastolet。Dr。
Embleton，oftheNewcastleFeverHospital，says:\"Therecanbelittledoubtthatthegreatcauseofthecontinuanceandspreadofthetyphushasbeentheover—crowdingofhumanbeings，andtheuncleanlinessoftheirdwellings。Therooms，inwhichlabourersinmanycaseslive，aresituatedinconfinedandunwholesomeyardsorcourts，andforspace，light，air，andcleanliness，aremodelsofinsufficiencyandinsalubrity，andadisgracetoanycivilisedcommunity;inthemmen，women，andchildrenlieatnighthuddledtogether:
andasregardsthemen，thenight—shiftsucceedtheday—shift，andtheday—shiftthenight—shiftinunbrokenseriesforsometimetogether，thebedshavingscarcelytimetocool;thewholehousebadlysuppliedwithwaterandworsewithprivies;dirty，unventilated，andpestiferous。\"[62]Thepriceperweekofsuchlodgingsrangesfrom8d。to3s。\"ThetownofNewcastle—on—Tyne，\"saysDr。Hunter，\"containsasampleofthefinesttribeofourcountrymen，oftensunkbyexternalcircumstancesofhouseandstreetintoanalmostsavagedegradation。\"[63]
Asaresultoftheebbingandflowingofcapitalandlabour，thestateofthedwellingsofanindustrialtownmayto—daybebearable，tomorrowhideous。Ortheaedileshipofthetownmayhavepulleditselftogetherfortheremovalofthemostshockingabuses。To—morrow，likeaswarmoflocusts，comecrowdinginmassesofraggedIrishmenordecayedEnglishagriculturallabourers。Theyarestowedawayincellarsandlofts，orthehithertorespectablelabourer’sdwellingistransformedintoalodging—housewhosepersonnelchangesasquicklyasthebilletsinthe30years’war。Example:Bradford（Yorkshire）。Therethemunicipalphilistinewasjustbusiedwithurbanimprovements。Besides，therewerestillinBradford，in1861，1，751uninhabitedhouses。ButnowcomesthatrevivaloftradewhichthemildlyliberalMr。Forster，thenegro’sfriend，recentlycrowedoverwithsomuchgrace。Withtherevivaloftradecameofcourseanoverflowfromthewavesoftheeverfluctuating\"reservearmy\"
or\"relativesurplus—population。\"Thefrightfulcellarhabitationsandroomsregisteredinthelist，[64]whichDr。HunterobtainedfromtheagentofanInsuranceCompany，wereforthemostpartinhabitedbywell—paidlabourers。Theydeclaredthattheywouldwillinglypayforbetterdwellingsiftheyweretobehad。Meanwhile，theybecomedegraded，theyfallill，oneandall，whilstthemildlyliberalForster，M。P。，shedstearsovertheblessingsofFree—trade，andtheprofitsoftheeminentmenofBradfordwhodealinworsted。IntheReportofSeptember，1865，Dr。Bell，oneofthepoorlawdoctorsofBradford，ascribesthefrightfulmortalityoffever—patientsinhisdistricttothenatureoftheirdwellings。
\"Inonesmallcellarmeasuring1，500cubicfeet……therearetenpersons……VincentStreet，GreenAirePlace，andtheLeysinclude223houseshaving1，450inhabitants，435beds，and36privies……Thebeds—andinthattermIincludeanyrollofdirtyoldrags，oranarmfulofshavings—haveanaverageof3。3personstoeach，manyhave5and6personstoeach，andsomepeople，Iamtold，areabsolutelywithoutbeds;theysleepintheirordinaryclothes，onthebareboards？youngmenandwomen，marriedandunmarried，alltogether。Ineedscarcelyaddthatmanyofthesedwellingsaredark，damp，dirty，stinkingholes，utterlyunfitforhumanhabitations;theyarethecentresfromwhichdiseaseanddeatharedistributedamongstthoseinbettercircumstances，whohaveallowedthemthustofesterinourmidst。;[65]
BristoltakesthethirdplaceafterLondoninthemiseryofitsdwellings。\"Bristol，wheretheblankestpovertyanddomesticmiseryaboundinthewealthiesttownofEurope。\"[66]
C。TheNomadPopulationWeturnnowtoaclassofpeoplewhoseoriginisagricultural，butwhoseoccupationisingreatpartindustrial。Theyarethelightinfantryofcapital，thrownbyit，accordingtoitsneeds，nowtothispoint，nowtothat。Whentheyarenotonthemarch，they\"camp。\"Nomadlabourisusedforvariousoperationsofbuildinganddraining，brick—making，lime—burning，railway—making，&c。Aflyingcolumnofpestilence，itcarriesintotheplacesinwhoseneighbourhooditpitchesitscamp，small—pox，typhus，cholera，scarletfever，&c。[67]Inundertakingsthatinvolvemuchcapitaloutlay，suchasrailways，&c。，thecontractorhimselfgenerallyprovideshisarmywithwoodenhutsandthelike，thusimprovisingvillageswithoutanysanitaryprovisions，outsidethecontrolofthelocalboards，veryprofitabletothecontractor，whoexploitsthelabourersintwo—foldfashion？assoldiersofindustryandastenants。Accordingasthewoodenhutcontains1，2，or3holes，itsinhabitant，navvy，orwhateverhemaybe，hastopay1，3，or4shillingsweekly;[68]Oneexamplewillsuffice。InSeptember，1864，Dr。SimonreportsthattheChairmanoftheNuisancesRemovalCommitteeoftheparishofSevenoakssentthefollowingdenunciationtoSirGeorgeGrey，HomeSecretary:？\"Small—poxcaseswererarelyheardofinthisparishuntilabouttwelvemonthsago。Shortlybeforethattime，theworksforarailwayfromLewishamtoTunbridgewerecommencedhere，and，inadditiontotheprincipalworksbeingintheimmediateneighbourhoodofthistown，herewasalsoestablishedthedepôtfo;thewholeoftheworks，sothatalargenumberofpersonswasofnecessityemployedhere。Ascottageaccommodationcouldnotbeobtainedforthemall，hutswerebuiltinseveralplacesalongthelineoftheworksbythecontractor，Mr。Jay，fortheirespecialoccupation。Thesehutspossessednoventilationnordrainage，and，besides，werenecessarilyover—crowded，becauseeachoccupanthadtoaccommodatelodgers，whateverthenumberinhisownfamilymightbe，althoughtherewereonlytworoomstoeachtenement。
Theconsequenceswere，accordingtothemedicalreportwereceived，thatinthenight—timethesepoorpeoplewerecompelledtoendureallthehorrorofsuffocationtoavoidthepestiferoussmellsarisingfromthefilthy，stagnantwater，andthepriviescloseundertheirwindows。ComplaintswereatlengthmadetotheNuisancesRemovalCommitteebyamedicalgentlemanwhohadoccasiontovisitthesehuts，andhespokeoftheirconditionasdwellingsinthemostsevereterms，andheexpressedhisfearsthatsomeveryseriousconsequencesmightensue，unlesssomesanitarymeasureswereadopted。Aboutayearago，Mr。Jaypromisedtoappropriateahut，towhichpersonsinhisemploy，whoweresufferingfromcontagiousdiseases，mightatonceberemoved。Herepeatedthatpromiseonthe23rdJulylast，butalthoughsincethedateofthelastPromisetherehavebeenseveralcasesofsmall—poxinhishuts，andtwodeathsfromthesamedisease，yethehastakennostepswhatevertocarryouthispromise。Onthe9thSeptemberinstant，Mr。Kelson，surgeon，reportedtomefurthercasesofsmall—poxinthesamehuts，andhedescribedtheirconditionasmostdisgraceful。
Ishouldadd，foryour（theHomeSecretary’s）informationthatanisolatedhouse，calledthePest—house，whichissetapartforparishionerswhomightbesufferingfrominfectiousdiseases，hasbeencontinuallyoccupiedbysuchpatientsformanymonthspast，andisalsonowoccupied;thatinonefamilyfivechildrendiedfromsmall—poxandfever;thatfromthe1stApriltothe1stSeptemberthisyear，aperiodoffivemonths，therehavebeennofewerthantendeathsfromsmall—poxintheparish，fourofthembeinginthehutsalreadyreferredto;thatitisimpossibletoascertaintheexactnumberofpersonswhohavesufferedfromthatdiseasealthoughtheyareknowntobemany，fromthefactofthefamilieskeepingitasprivateaspossible。\"[69]
ThelabourersincoalandotherminesbelongtothebestpaidcategoriesoftheBritishproletariat。Thepriceatwhichtheybuytheirwageswasshownonanearlierpage。[70]HereImerelycastahurriedglanceovertheconditionsoftheirdwellings。
Asarule，theexploiterofamine，whetheritsownerorhistenant，buildsanumberofcottagesforhishands。Theyreceivecottagesandcoalforfiring\"fornothing\"？i。e。，theseformpartoftheirwages，paidinkind。Thosewhoarenotlodgedinthiswayreceiveincompensation£4
perannum。Theminingdistrictsattractwithrapidityalargepopulation，madeupoftheminersthemselves，andtheartisans，shopkeepers，&c。，thatgroupthemselvesaroundthem。Theground—rentsarehigh，astheyaregenerallywherepopulationisdense。Themastertries，therefore，torunup，withinthesmallestspacepossibleatthemouthofthepit，justsomanycottagesasarenecessarytopacktogetherhishandsandtheirfamilies。
Ifnewminesareopenedintheneighborhood，oroldonesareagainsetworking，thepressureincreases。Intheconstructionofthecottages，onlyonepointofviewisofmoment，the\"abstinence\"
ofthecapitalistfrontallexpenditurethatisnotabsolutelyunavoidable。
\"ThelodgingwhichisobtainedbythepitmanandotherlabourersconnectedwiththecollieriesofNorthumberlandandDurham，\"saysDr。JulianHunter，\"isperhaps，onthewhole，theworstandthedearestofwhichanylargespecimenscanbefoundinEngland，thesimilarparishesofMonmouthshireexcepted……Theextremebadnessisinthehighnumberofmenfoundinoneroom，inthesmallnessoftheground—plotonwhichagreatnumberofhousesarethrust，thewantofwater，theabsenceofprivies，andthefrequentplacingofonehouseonthetopofanother，ordistributionintoflats，……thelesseeactsasifthewholecolonywereencamped，notresident。\"[71]
\"Inpursuanceofmyinstructions，\"saysDr。Stevens，\"IvisitedmostofthelargecollieryvillagesintheDurhamUnion……Withveryfewexceptions，thegeneralstatementthatnomeansaretakentosecurethehealthoftheinhabitantswouldbetrueofallofthem……Allcolliersarebound[’bound，’
anexpressionwhich，likebondage，datesfromtheageofserfdom]tothecollierylesseeorownerfortwelvemonths……Ifthecolliersexpressdiscontent，orinanywayannoythe’viewer，’amarkofmemorandumismadeagainsttheirnames，and，attheannual’binding，’suchmenareturnedoff……Itappearstomethatnopartofthe’trucksystem’couldbeworsethanwhatobtainsinthesedensely—populateddistricts。
Thecollierisboundtotakeaspartofhishiringahousesurroundedwithpestiferousinfluences;hecannothelphimself，anditappearsdoubtfulwhetheranyoneelsecanhelphimexcepthisproprietor（heis，toallintentsandpurposes，aserf），andhisproprietorfirstconsultshisbalance—sheet，andtheresultistolerablycertain。Thecollierisalsooftensuppliedwithwaterbytheproprietor，which，whetheritbegoodorbad，hehastopayfor，orratherhesuffersadeductionforfromhiswages。\"[72]
Inconflictwith\"publicopinion，\"orevenwiththeOfficersofHealth，capitalmakesnodifficultyabout\"justifying\"theconditionspartlydangerous，partlydegrading，towhichitconfinestheworkinganddomesticlifeofthelabourer，onthegroundthattheyarenecessaryforprofit。Itisthesamethingwhencapital\"abstains\"fromprotectivemeasuresagainstdangerousmachineryinthefactory，fromappliancesforventilationandforsafetyinmines，&c。Itisthesameherewiththehousingoftheminers。Dr。
Simon，medicalofficerofthePrivyCouncil，inhisofficialReportsays:
\"Inapologyforthewretchedhouseholdaccommodation……itisallegedthatminersarecommonlyworkedonlease;thatthedurationofthelessee’sinterest（whichincollieriesiscommonlyfor21years），isnotsolongthatheshoulddeemitworthhiswhiletocreategoodaccommodationforhislabourers，andforthetradespeopleandotherswhomtheworkattracts;
thatevenifheweredisposedtoactliberallyinthematter，thisdispositionwouldcommonlybedefeatedbyhislandlord’stendencytofixonhim，asground—rent，anexorbitantadditionalchargefortheprivilegeofhavingonthesurfaceofthegroundthedecentandcomfortablevillagewhichthelabourersofthesubterraneanpropertyoughttoinhabit，andthatprohibitoryprice（ifnotactualprohibition）equallyexcludesotherswhomightdesiretobuild。Itwouldbeforeigntothepurposeofthisreporttoenteruponanydiscussionofthemeritsoftheaboveapology。Norhereisitevenneedfultoconsiderwhereitwouldbethat，ifdecentaccommodationwereprovided，thecost……wouldeventuallyfall？whetheronlandlord，orlessee，orlabourer，orpublic。Butinpresenceofsuchshamefulfactsasarevouchedforintheannexedreports[thoseofDr。Hunter，Dr。Stevens，&c。]aremedymaywellbeclaimed……;Claimsoflandlordshiparebeingsousedastodogreatpublicwrong。Thelandlordinhiscapacityofmine—ownerinvitesanindustrialcolonytolabouronhisestate，andtheninhiscapacityofsurface—ownermakesitimpossiblethatthelabourerswhomhecollects，shouldfindproperlodgingwheretheymustlive。Thelessee[thecapitalistexploiter]meanwhilehasnopecuniarymotiveforresistingthatdivisionofthebargain;wellknowingthatifitslatterconditionsbeexorbitant，theconsequencesfall，notonhim，thathislabourersonwhomtheyfallhavenoteducationenoughtoknowthevalueoftheirsanitaryrights，thatneitherobscenestlodgingnorfoulestdrinkingwaterwillbeappreciableinducementstowardsa’strike。’\"[73]
D。EffectofCrisesontheBestPaidPartoftheWorking—ClassBeforeIturntotheregularagriculturallabourers，Imaybeallowedtoshow，byoneexample，howindustrialrevulsionsaffecteventhebestpaid，thearistocracy，oftheworking—class。Itwillberememberedthattheyear1857broughtoneofthegreatcriseswithwhichtheindustrialcycleperiodicallyends。Thenextterminationofthecyclewasduein1866。Alreadydiscountedintheregularfactorydistrictsbythecottonfamine，whichthrewmuchcapitalfromitswontedsphereintothegreatcentresofthemoney—market，thecrisisassumed，atthistime，anespeciallyfinancialcharacter。Itsoutbreakin1866wassignalisedbythefailureofagiganticLondonBank，immediatelyfollowedbythecollapseofcountlessswidlingcompanies。OneofthegreatLondonbranchesofindustryinvolvedinthecatastrophewasironshipbuilding。Themagnatesofthistradehadnotonlyover—producedbeyondallmeasureduringtheovertradingtime，buttheyhad，besides，engagedinenormouscontractsonthespeculationthatcreditwouldbeforthcomingtoanequivalentextent。Now，aterriblereactionsetin，thatevenatthishour（theendofMarch，1867）continuesinthisandotherLondonindustries。[74]Toshowtheconditionofthelabourers，IquotethefollowingfromthecircumstantialreportofacorrespondentoftheMorningStar，who，attheendof1866，andbeginningof1867，visitedthechiefcentresofdistress:\"IntheEastEnddistrictsofPoplar，Millwall，Greenwich，Deptford，LimehouseandCanningTown，atleast15，000workmenandtheirfamilieswereinastateofutterdestitution，and3，000skilledmechanicswerebreakingstonesintheworkhouseyard（afterdistressofoverhalfayear’sduration）……Ihadgreatdifficultyinreachingtheworkhousedoor，forahungrycrowdbesiegedit……Theywerewaitingfortheirtickets，butthetimehadnotyetarrivedforthedistribution。Theyardwasagreatsquareplacewithanopenshedrunningallroundit，andseverallargeheapsofsnowcoveredthepaving—stonesinthemiddle。Inthemiddle，also，werelittlewicker—fencedspaces，likesheeppens，whereinfinerweatherthemenworked;butonthedayofmyvisitthepensweresosnowedupthatnobodycouldsitinthem。Menwerebusy，however，intheopenshedbreakingpaving—stonesintomacadam。Eachmanhadabigpaving—stoneforaseat，andhechippedawayattherime—coveredgranitewithabighammeruntilhehadbrokenup，andthink！fivebushelsofit，andthenhehaddonehisday’swork，andgothisday’spay？threepenceandanallowanceoffood。