wouldhavetobeturnedinto\"productive\"ones。
Takingthemasawhole，thegeneralmovementsofwagesareexclusivelyregulatedbytheexpansionandcontractionoftheindustrialreservearmy，andtheseagaincorrespondtotheperiodicchangesoftheindustrialcycle。
Theyare，therefore，notdeterminedbythevariationsoftheabsolutenumberoftheworkingpopulation，butbythevaryingproportionsinwhichtheworking—classisdividedintoactiveandreservearmy，bytheincreaseordiminutionintherelativeamountofthesurplus—population，bytheextenttowhichitisnowabsorbed，nowsetfree。ForModernIndustrywithitsdecennialcyclesandperiodicphases，which，moreover，asaccumulationadvances，arecomplicatedbyirregularoscillationsfollowingeachothermoreandmorequickly。thatwouldindeedbeabeautifullaw，whichpretendstomaketheactionofcapitaldependentontheabsolutevariationofthepopulation，insteadofregulatingthedemandandsupplyoflabourbythealternateexpansionandcontractionofcapital，thelabour—marketnowappearingrelativelyunder—full，becausecapitalisexpanding，nowagainover—full，becauseitiscontracting。Yetthisisthedogmaoftheeconomists。Accordingtothem，wagesriseinconsequenceofaccumulationofcapital。Thehigherwagesstimulatetheworkingpopulationtomorerapidmultiplication，andthisgoesonuntilthelabour—marketbecomestoofull，andthereforecapital，relativelytothesupplyoflabour，becomesinsufficient。
Wagesfall，andnowwehavethereverseofthemedal。Theworkingpopulationislittlebylittledecimatedastheresultofthefallinwages，sothatcapitalisagaininexcessrelativelytothem，or，asothersexplainit，fallingwagesandthecorrespondingincreaseintheexploitationofthelaboureragainacceleratesaccumulation，whilst，atthesametime，thelowerwagesholdtheincreaseoftheworking—classincheck。Thencomesagainthetime，whenthesupplyoflabourislessthanthedemand，wagesrise，andsoon。Abeautifulmodeofmotionthisfordevelopedcapitalistproduction！Before，inconsequenceoftheriseofwages，anypositiveincreaseofthepopulationreallyfitforworkcouldoccur，thetimewouldhavebeenpassedagainandagain，duringwhichtheindustrialcampaignmusthavebeencarriedthrough，thebattlefoughtandwon。
Between1849and1859，ariseofwagespracticallyinsignificant，thoughaccompaniedbyfallingpricesofcorn，tookplaceintheEnglishagriculturaldistricts。InWiltshire，e。g。，theweeklywagesrosefrom7s。to8s。;inDorsetshirefrom7s。or8s。，to9s。，&c。Thiswastheresultofanunusualexodusoftheagriculturalsurplus—populationcausedbythedemandsofwar，thevastextensionofrailroads，factories，mines，&c。
Thelowerthewages，thehigheristheproportioninwhicheversoinsignificantariseofthemexpressesitself。Iftheweeklywage，e。g。，is20s。
anditrisesto22s。，thatisariseof10percent。;butifitisonly7s。anditrisesto9s。，thatisariseof284/7percent。，whichsoundsveryfine。Everywherethefarmerswerehowling，andtheLondonEconomist，withreferencetothesestarvation—wages，prattledquiteseriouslyof\"ageneralandsubstantialadvance。\"[20]Whatdidthefarmersdonow？Didtheywaituntil，inconsequenceofthisbrilliantremuneration，theagriculturallabourershadsoincreasedandmultipliedthattheirwagesmustfallagain，asprescribedbythedogmaticeconomicbrain？Theyintroducedmoremachinery，andinamomentthelabourerswereredundantagaininaproportionsatisfactoryeventothefarmers。Therewasnow\"morecapital\"laidoutinagriculturethanbefore，andinamoreproductiveform。Withthisthedemandforlabourfell，notonlyrelatively，butabsolutely。
Theaboveeconomicfictionconfusesthelawsthatregulatethegeneralmovementofwages，ortheratiobetweentheworking—class？i。e。，thetotallabour—power？andthetotalsocialcapital，withthelawsthatdistributetheworkingpopulationoverthedifferentspheresofproduction。
If，e。g。，inconsequenceoffavourablecircumstances，accumulationinaparticularsphereofproductionbecomesespeciallyactive，andprofitsinit，beinggreaterthantheaverageprofits，attractadditionalcapital，ofcoursethedemandforlabourrisesandwagesalsorise。Thehigherwagesdrawalargerpartoftheworkingpopulationintothemorefavouredsphere，untilitisgluttedwithlabour—power，andwagesatlengthfallagaintotheiraveragelevelorbelowit，ifthepressureistoogreat。Then，notonlydoestheimmigrationoflabourersintothebranchofindustryinquestioncease;itgivesplacetotheiremigration。Herethepoliticaleconomistthinksheseesthewhyandwhereforeofanabsoluteincreaseofworkersaccompanyinganincreaseofwages，andofadiminutionofwagesaccompanyinganabsoluteincreaseoflabourers。Butheseesreallyonlythelocaloscillationofthelabour—marketinaparticularsphereofproduction？heseesonlythephenomenaaccompanyingthedistributionoftheworkingpopulationintothedifferentspheresofoutlayofcapital，accordingtoitsvaryingneeds。
Theindustrialreservearmy，duringtheperiodsofstagnationandaverageprosperity，weighsdowntheactivelabour—army;duringtheperiodsofover—productionandparoxysm，itholdsitspretensionsincheck。Relativesurplus—populationisthereforethepivotuponwhichthelawofdemandandsupplyoflabourworks。Itconfinesthefieldofactionofthislawwithinthelimitsabsolutelyconvenienttotheactivityofexploitationandtothedominationofcapital。
Thisistheplacetoreturntooneofthegrandexploitsofeconomicapologetics。Itwillberememberedthatifthroughtheintroductionofnew，ortheextensionofold，machinery，aportionofvariablecapitalistransformedintoconstant，theeconomicapologistinterpretsthisoperationwhich\"fixes\"capitalandbythatveryactsetslabourers\"free，\"inexactlytheoppositeway，pretendingthatitsetsfreecapitalforthelabourers。
Onlynowcanonefullyunderstandtheeffronteryoftheseapologists。Whataresetfreearenotonlythelabourersimmediatelyturnedoutbythemachines，butalsotheirfuturesubstitutesintherisinggeneration，andtheadditionalcontingent，thatwiththeusualextensionoftradeontheoldbasiswouldberegularlyabsorbed。Theyarenowall\"setfree，\"andeverynewbitofcapitallookingoutforemploymentcandisposeofthem。Whetheritattractsthemorothers，theeffectonthegenerallabourdemandwillbenil，ifthiscapitalisjustsufficienttotakeoutofthemarketasmanylabourersasthemachinesthrewuponit。Ifitemploysasmallernumber，thatofthesupernumerariesincreases;ifitemploysagreater，thegeneraldemandforlabouronlyincreasestotheextentoftheexcessoftheemployedoverthose\"setfree。\"Theimpulsethatadditionalcapital，seekinganoutlet，wouldotherwisehavegiventothegeneraldemandforlabour，isthereforeineverycaseneutralisedtotheextentofthelabourersthrownoutofemploymentbythemachine。Thatistosay，themechanismofcapitalisticproductionsomanagesmattersthattheabsoluteincreaseofcapitalisaccompaniedbynocorrespondingriseinthegeneraldemandforlabour。Andthistheapologistcallsacompensationforthemisery，thesufferings，thepossibledeathofthedisplacedlabourersduringthetransitionperiodthatbanishesthemintotheindustrialreservearmy！
Thedemandforlabourisnotidenticalwithincreaseofcapital，norsupplyoflabourwithincreaseoftheworking—class。Itisnotacaseoftwoindependentforcesworkingononeanother。Lesdéssontpipés。Capitalworksonbothsidesatthesametime。Ifitsaccumulation，ontheonehand，increasesthedemandforlabour，itincreasesontheotherthesupplyoflabourersbythe\"settingfree\"ofthem，whilstatthesametimethepressureoftheunemployedcompelsthosethatareemployedtofurnishmorelabour，andthereforemakesthesupplyoflabour，toacertainextent，independentofthesupplyoflabourers。Theactionofthelawofsupplyanddemandoflabouronthisbasiscompletesthedespotismofcapital。Assoon，therefore，asthelabourerslearnthesecret，howitcomestopassthatinthesamemeasureastheyworkmore，astheyproducemorewealthforothers，andastheproductivepoweroftheirlabourincreases，sointhesamemeasureeventheirfunctionasameansoftheself—expansionofcapitalbecomesmoreandmoreprecariousforthem;assoonastheydiscoverthatthedegreeofintensityofthecompetitionamongthemselvesdependswhollyonthepressureoftherelativesurplus—population;assoonas，byTrades’Unions，&c。，theytrytoorganisearegularco—operationbetweenemployedandunemployedinordertodestroyortoweakentheruinouseffectsofthisnaturallawofcapitalisticproductionontheirclass，sosooncapitalanditssycophant，PoliticalEconomy，cryoutattheinfringementofthe\"eternal\"andsotosay\"sacred\"lawofsupplyanddemand。Everycombinationofemployedandunemployeddisturbsthe\"harmonious\"actionofthislaw。
But，ontheotherhand，assoonas（inthecolonies，e。g。）adversecircumstancespreventthecreationofanindustrialreservearmyand，withit，theabsolutedependenceoftheworking—classuponthecapitalistclass，capital，alongwithitscommonplaceSanchoPanza，rebelsagainstthe\"sacred\"lawofsupplyanddemand，andtriestocheckitsinconvenientactionbyforciblemeansandStateinterference。
SECTION4。DIFFERENTFORMSOFTHERELATIVESURPLUS—POPULATION。THEGENERALLAWOFCAPITALISTIC
ACCUMULATION
Therelativesurplus—populationexistsineverypossibleform。Everylabourerbelongstoitduringthetimewhenheisonlypartiallyemployedorwhollyunemployed。Nottakingintoaccountthegreatperiodicallyrecurringformsthatthechangingphasesoftheindustrialcycleimpressonit，nowanacuteformduringthecrisis，thenagainachronicformduringdulltimes？ithasalwaysthreeforms，thefloating，thelatent，thestagnant。
Inthecentresofmodernindustry？factories，manufactures，ironworks，mines，&c。？thelabourersaresometimesrepelled，sometimesattractedagainingreatermasses，thenumberofthoseemployedincreasingonthewhole，althoughinaconstantlydecreasingproportiontothescaleofproduction。
Herethesurplus—populationexistsinthefloatingforp;
Intheautomaticfactories，asinallthegreatworkshops，wheremachineryentersasafactor，orwhereonlythemoderndivisionoflabouriscarriedout，largenumbersofboysareemployeduptotheageofmaturity。Whenthistermisoncereached，onlyaverysmallnumbercontinuetofindemploymentinthesamebranchesofindustry，whilstthemajorityareregularlydischarged。
Thismajorityformsanelementofthefloatingsurplus—population，growingwiththeextensionofthosebranchesofindustry。Partofthememigrates，followinginfactcapitalthathasemigrated。Oneconsequenceisthatthefemalepopulationgrowsmorerapidlythanthemale，testeEngland。
Thatthenaturalincreaseofthenumberoflabourersdoesnotsatisfytherequirementsoftheaccumulationofcapital，andyetallthetimeisinexcessofthem，isacontradictioninherenttothemovementofcapitalitself。Itwantslargernumbersofyouthfullabourers，asmallernumberofadults。Thecontradictionisnotmoreglaringthanthatotheronethatthereisacomplaintofthewantofhands，whileatthesametimemanythousandsareoutofwork，becausethedivisionoflabourchainsthemtoaparticularbranchofindustry。[21]
Theconsumptionoflabour—powerbycapitalis，besides，sorapidthatthelabourer，half—waythroughhislife，hasalreadymoreorlesscompletelylivedhimselfout。Hefallsintotheranksofthesupernumeraries，oristhrustdownfromahighertoalowerstepinthescale。Itispreciselyamongthework—peopleofmodernindustrythatwemeetwiththeshortestdurationoflife。Dr。Lee，MedicalOfficerofHealthforManchester，stated\"thattheaverageageatdeathoftheManchester……uppermiddleclasswas38years，whiletheaverageageatdeathofthelabouringclasswas17;whileatLiverpoolthosefigureswererepresentedas35against15。
Itthusappearedthatthewell—to—doclasseshadaleaseoflifewhichwasmorethandoublethevalueofthatwhichfelltothelotofthelessfavouredcitizens。\"[22]Inordertoconformtothesecircumstances，theabsoluteincreaseofthissectionoftheproletariatmusttakeplaceunderconditionsthatshallswelltheirnumbers，althoughtheindividualelementsareuseduprapidly。
Hence，rapidrenewalofthegenerationsoflabourers（thislawdoesnotholdfortheotherclassesofthepopulation）。Thissocialneedismetbyearlymarriages，anecessaryconsequenceoftheconditionsinwhichthelabourersofmodernindustrylive，andbythepremiumthattheexploitationofchildrensetsontheirproduction。
Assoonascapitalistproductiontakespossessionofagriculture，andinproportiontotheextenttowhichitdoesso，thedemandforanagriculturallabouringpopulationfallsabsolutely，whiletheaccumulationofthecapitalemployedinagricultureadvances，withoutthisrepulsionbeing，asinnon—agriculturalindustries，compensatedbyagreaterattraction。Partoftheagriculturalpopulationisthereforeconstantlyonthepointofpassingoverintoanurbanormanufacturingproletariat。andonthelook—outforcircumstancesfavourabletothistransformation。（Manufactureisusedhereinthesenseofallnonagriculturalindustries。）[23]Thissourceofrelativesurplus—populationisthusconstantlyflowing。
Buttheconstantflowtowardsthetownspre—supposes，inthecountryitself，aconstantlatentsurplus—population，theextentofwhichbecomesevidentonlywhenitschannelsofoutletopentoexceptionalwidth。Theagriculturallaboureristhereforereducedtotheminimumofwages，andalwaysstandswithonefootalreadyintheswampofpauperism。
Thethirdcategoryoftherelativesurplus—population，thestagnant，formsapartoftheactivelabourarmy，butwithextremelyirregularemployment。
Henceitfurnishestocapitalaninexhaustiblereservoirofdisposablelabour—power。Itsconditionsoflifesinkbelowtheaveragenormalleveloftheworking—class;thismakesitatoncethebroadbasisofspecialbranchesofcapitalistexploitation。Itischaracterisedbymaximumofworking—time，andminimumofwages。Wehavelearnttoknowitschiefformundertherubricof\"domesticindustry。\"Itrecruitsitselfconstantlyfromthesupernumeraryforcesofmodernindustryandagriculture，andspeciallyfromthosedecayingbranchesofindustrywherehandicraftisyieldingtomanufacture，manufacturetomachinery。Itsextentgrows，aswiththeextentandenergyofaccumulation，thecreationofasurplus—populationadvances。Butitformsatthesametimeaself—reproducingandself—perpetuatingelementoftheworking—class，takingaproportionallygreaterpartinthegeneralincreaseofthatclassthantheotherelements。
Infact，notonlythenumberofbirthsanddeaths，buttheabsolutesizeofthefamiliesstandininverseproportiontotheheightofwages，andthereforetotheamountofmeansofsubsistenceofwhichthedifferentcategoriesoflabourersdispose。Thislawofcapitalisticsocietywouldsoundabsurdtosavages，orevencivilisedcolonists。Itcallstomindtheboundlessreproductionofanimalsindividuallyweakandconstantlyhunteddown。[24]
Thelowestsedimentoftherelativesurplus—populationfinallydwellsinthesphereofpauperism。Exclusiveofvagabonds，criminals，prostitutes，inaword，the\"dangerous\"classes，thislayerofsocietyconsistsofthreecategories。First，thoseabletowork。OneneedonlyglancesuperficiallyatthestatisticsofEnglishpauperismtofindthatthequantityofpaupersincreaseswitheverycrisis，anddiminisheswitheveryrevivaloftrade。
Second，orphansandpauperchildren。Thesearecandidatesfortheindustrialreservearmy，andare，intimesofgreatprosperity，as1860，e。g。，speedilyandinlargenumbersenrolledintheactivearmyoflabourers。Third，thedemoralisedandragged，andthoseunabletowork，chieflypeoplewhosuccumbtotheirincapacityforadaptation，duetothedivisionoflabour;peoplewhohavepassedthenormalageofthelabourer;thevictimsofindustry，whosenumberincreaseswiththeincreaseofdangerousmachinery，ofmines，chemicalworks，&c。，themutilated，thesickly，thewidows，&c。Pauperismisthehospitaloftheactivelabour—armyandthedeadweightoftheindustrialreservearmy。
Itsproductionisincludedinthatoftherelativesurplus—population，itsnecessityintheirs;alongwiththesurplus—population，pauperismformsaconditionofcapitalistproduction，andofthecapitalistdevelopmentofwealth。Itentersintothefauxfraisofcapitalistproduction;
butcapitalknowshowtothrowthese。forthemostpart，fromitsownshouldersontothoseoftheworking—classandthelowermiddleclass。
Thegreaterthesocialwealth，thefunctioningcapital，theextentandenergyofitsgrowth，and，therefore，alsotheabsolutemassoftheproletariatandtheproductivenessofitslabour，thegreateristheindustrialreservearmy。Thesamecauseswhichdeveloptheexpansivepowerofcapital，developalsothelabour—poweratitsdisposal。Therelativemassoftheindustrialreservearmyincreasesthereforewiththepotentialenergyofwealth。Butthegreaterthisreservearmyinproportiontotheactivelabour—army，thegreateristhemassofaconsolidatedsurplus—population，whosemiseryisininverseratiotoitstormentoflabour。Themoreextensive，finally，thelazarus—layersoftheworking—class，andtheindustrialreservearmy，thegreaterisofficialpauperism。Thisistheabsolutegenerallawofcapitalistaccumulation。Likeallotherlawsitismodifiedinitsworkingbymanycircumstances，theanalysisofwhichdoesnotconcernushere。
Thefollyisnowpatentoftheeconomicwisdomthatpreachestothelabourerstheaccommodationoftheirnumbertotherequirementsofcapital。
Themechanismofcapitalistproductionandaccumulationconstantlyeffectsthisadjustment。Thefirstwordofthisadaptationisthecreationofarelativesurplus—population，orindustrialreservearmy。Itslastwordisthemiseryofconstantlyextendingstrataoftheactivearmyoflabour，andthedeadweightofpauperism。
Thelawbywhichaconstantlyincreasingquantityofmeansofproduction，thankstotheadvanceintheproductivenessofsociallabour，maybesetinmovementbyaprogressivelydiminishingexpenditureofhumanpower，thislaw，inacapitalistsociety？wherethelabourerdoesnotemploythemeansofproduction，butthemeansofproductionemploythelabourer？undergoesacompleteinversionandisexpressedthus:thehighertheproductivenessoflabour，thegreateristhepressureofthelabourersonthemeansofemployment，themoreprecarious，therefore，becomestheirconditionofexistence，viz。，thesaleoftheirownlabour—powerfortheincreasingofanother’swealth，orfortheself—expansionofcapital。
Thefactthatthemeansofproduction，andtheproductivenessoflabour，increasemorerapidlythantheproductivepopulation，expressesitself，therefore，capitalisticallyintheinverseformthatthelabouringpopulationalwaysincreasesmorerapidlythantheconditionsunderwhichcapitalcanemploythisincreaseforitsownself—expansion。
WesawinPartIV。，whenanalysingtheproductionofrelativesurplus—value:
withinthecapitalistsystemallmethodsforraisingthesocialproductivenessoflabourarebroughtaboutatthecostoftheindividuallabourer;allmeansforthedevelopmentofproductiontransformthemselvesintomeansofdominationover，andexploitationof，theproducers;theymutilatethelabourerintoafragmentofaman，degradehimtothelevelofanappendageofamachine，destroyeveryremnantofcharminhisworkandturnitintoahatedtoil;theyestrangefromhimtheintellectualpotentialitiesofthelabour—processinthesameproportionasscienceisincorporatedinitasanindependentpower;theydistorttheconditionsunderwhichheworks，subjecthimduringthelabour—processtoadespotismthemorehatefulforitsmeanness;theytransformhislife—timeintoworking—time，anddraghiswifeandchildbeneaththewheelsoftheJuggernautofcapital。Butallmethodsfortheproductionofsurplus—valueareatthesametimemethodsofaccumulation;andeveryextensionofaccumulationbecomesagainameansforthedevelopmentofthosemethods。Itfollowsthereforethatinproportionascapitalaccumulates，thelotofthelabourer，behispaymenthighorlow，mustgrowworse。Thelaw，finally，thatalwaysequilibratestherelativesurplus—population，orindustrialreservearmy，totheextentandenergyofaccumulation，thislawrivetsthelabourertocapitalmorefirmlythanthewedgesofVulcandidPrometheustotherock。Itestablishesanaccumulationofmisery，correspondingwithaccumulationofcapital。Accumulationofwealthatonepoleis，therefore，atthesametimeaccumulationofmisery，agonyoftoilslavery，ignorance，brutality，mentaldegradation，attheoppositepole，i。e。，onthesideoftheclassthatproducesitsownproductintheformofcapital。[25]Thisantagonisticcharacterofcapitalisticaccumulationisenunciatedinvariousformsbypoliticaleconomists，althoughbythemitisconfoundedwithphenomena，certainlytosomeextentanalogous，butneverthelessessentiallydistinct，andbelongingtopre—capitalisticmodesofproduction。
TheVenetianmonkOrtes，oneofthegreateconomicwritersofthe18thcentury，regardstheantagonismofcapitalistproductionasageneralnaturallawofsocialwealth。\"Intheeconomyofanation，advantagesandevilsalwaysbalanceoneanother（ilbeneedilmaleeconomicoinunanazionesempreall，istessamisura）:theabundanceofwealthwithsomepeople，isalwaysequaltothewantofitwithothers（lacopiadeibeniinalcunisempreegualealiamancanzadiessiinaltri）:thegreatrichesofasmallnumberarealwaysaccompaniedbytheabsoluteprivationofthefirstnecessariesoflifeformanyothers。Thewealthofanationcorrespondswithitspopulation，anditsmiserycorrespondswithitswealth。Diligenceinsomecompelsidlenessinothers。Thepoorandidleareanecessaryconsequenceoftherichandactive，\"&c。[26]Inathoroughlybrutalwayabout10yearsafterOrtes，theChurchofEnglandparson，Townsend，glorifiedmiseryasanecessaryconditionofwealth。
\"Legalconstraint（tolabour）isattendedwithtoomuchtrouble，violence，andnoise，whereashungerisnotonlyapeaceable，silent，unremittedpressure，butasthemostnaturalmotivetoindustryandlabour，itcallsforththemostpowerfulexertions。\"Everythingtherefor’edependsuponmakinghungerpermanentamongtheworking—class，andforthis，accordingtoTownsend，theprincipleofpopulation，especiallyactiveamongthepoor，provides。
\"ItseemstobealawofNaturethatthepoorshouldbetoacertaindegreeimprovident\"[i。e。，soimprovidentastobebornwithoutasilverspooninthemouth]，\"thattheremayalwaysbesometofulfilthemostservile，themostsordid，andthemostignobleofficesinthecommunity。Thestockofhumanhappinessistherebymuchincreased，whilstthemoredelicatearenotonlyrelievedfromdrudgery……butareleftatlibertywithoutinterruptiontopursuethosecallingswhicharesuitedtotheirvariousdispositions……it[thePoorLaw]tendstodestroytheharmonyandbeauty，thesymmetryandorderofthatsystemwhichGodandNaturehaveestablishedintheworld。[27]IftheVenetianmonkfoundinthefataldestinythatmakesmiseryeternal，theraisond’êtreofChristiancharity，celibacy，monasteriesandholyhouses，theProtestantprebendaryfindsinitapretextforcondemningthelawsinvirtueofwhichthepoorpossessedarighttoamiserablepublicrelief。
\"Theprogressofsocialwealth，\"saysStorch，\"begetsthisusefulclassofsociety……whichperformsthemostwearisome，thevilest，themostdisgustingfunctions，whichtakes，inaword，onitsshouldersallthatisdisagreeableandservileinlife，andprocuresthusforotherclassesleisure，serenityofmindandconventional[c’estbon！]dignityofcharacter。\"[28]Storchaskshimselfinwhatthenreallyconsiststheprogressofthiscapitalisticcivilisationwithitsmiseryanditsdegradationofthemasses，ascomparedwithbarbarism。Hefindsbutoneanswer:security！
\"Thankstotheadvanceofindustryandscience，\"saysSismondi，\"everylabourercanproduceeverydaymuchmorethanhisconsumptionrequires。
Butatthesametime，whilsthislabourproduceswealth，thatwealthwould，werehecalledontoconsumeithimself，makehimlessfitforlabour。\"
Accordingtohim，\"men\"[i。e。，non—workers]\"wouldprobablyprefertodowithoutallartisticperfection，andalltheenjoymentsthatmanufacturersprocureforus，ifitwerenecessarythatallshouldbuythembyconstanttoillikethatofthelabourer……Exertionto—dayisseparatedfromitsrecompense;itisnotthesamemanthatfirstworks，andthenreposes;
butitisbecausetheoneworksthattheotherrests……Theindefinitemultiplicationoftheproductivepowersoflabourcanthenonlyhaveforresulttheincreaseofluxuryandenjoymentoftheidlerich。\"[29]
FinallyDestuttdeTracy，thefish—bloodedbourgeoisdoctrinaire，blurtsoutbrutally:\"Inpoornationsthepeoplearecomfortable，inrichnationstheyaregenerallypoor。\"[30]
SECTION5。ILLUSTRATIONSOFTHEGENERALLAWOFCAPITALISTACCUMULATION
A。Englandfrom1846—1866Noperiodofmodernsocietyissofavourableforthestudyofcapitalistaccumulationastheperiodofthelast20years。ItisasifthisperiodhadfoundFortunatus’purse。ButofallcountriesEnglandagainfurnishestheclassicalexample，becauseitholdstheforemostplaceintheworld—market，becausecapitalistproductionisherealonecompletelydeveloped，andlastly，becausetheintroductionoftheFree—trademillenniumsince1846hascutoffthelastretreatofvulgareconomy。Thetitanicadvanceofproduction？thelatterhalfofthe20years’periodagainfarsurpassingtheformer？hasbeenalreadypointedoutsufficientlyinPartIV。
AlthoughtheabsoluteincreaseoftheEnglishpopulationinthelasthalfcenturywasverygreat，therelativeincreaseorrateofgrowthfellconstantly，asthefollowingtableborrowedfromthecensusshows。
Annualincreasepercent。ofthepopulationofEnglandandWalesindecimalnumbers:
1811—18211。533percent。
1821—18311。446percent。
1831—18411。326percent。
1841—18511。216percent。
1851—18611。141percent。
Letusnow，ontheotherhand，considertheincreaseofwealth。Herethemovementofprofit，rentofland，&c。，thatcomeundertheincometax。furnishesthesurestbasis。Theincreaseofprofitsliabletoincometax（farmersandsomeothercategoriesnotincluded）inGreatBritainfrom1853to1864amountedto50。47%or4。58%astheannualaverage，[31]thatofthepopulationduringthesameperiodtoabout12%。Theaugmentationoftherentoflandsubjecttotaxation（includinghouses，railways，mines，fisheries，&c。），amountedfor1853to1864to38%or35/12%annually。
Underthisheadthefollowingcategoriesshowthegreatestincrease:
Excessofannualincomeof1864overthatof1853IncreaseperyearHouses38。60%3。50%
Quarries84。76%7。70%
Mines68。85%6。26%
Ironworks39。92%3。63%
Fisheries57。37%5。21%
Gasworks126。02%11。45%
Railways83。29%7。57%
Ifwecomparetheyearsfrom1853to1864inthreesetsoffourconsecutiveyearseach，therateofaugmentationoftheincomeincreasesconstantly。[32]Itis，e。g。，forthatarisingfromprofitsbetween1853to1857，1。73%yearly;1857—1861，2。74%，andfor1861—64，9。30%yearly。ThesumoftheincomesoftheUnitedKingdomthatcomeundertheincometaxwasin1856，£307，068，898;in1859，£328，127，416;in1862。£351，745，241;
in1863，£359，142，897;in1864，£362，462，279;in1865，£385，530，020。[33]
Theaccumulationofcapitalwasattendedatthesametimebyitsconcentrationandcentralisation。AlthoughnoofficialstatisticsofagricultureexistedforEngland（theydidforIreland），theywerevoluntarilygivenin10counties。
Thesestatisticsgavetheresultthatfrom1851to1861thenumberoffarmsoflessthan100acreshadfallenfrom31，583to26，597，sothat5，016
hadbeenthrowntogetherintolargerfarms。[34]From1815to1825nopersonalestateofmorethan£1，000，000cameunderthesuccessionduty;from1825to1855，however，8did;and4from1856toJune，1859，i。e。，in41/2years。[35]Thecentralisationwill，however，bebestseenfromashortanalysisoftheIncomeTaxScheduleD（profits，exclusiveoffarms，&c。），intheyears1864and1865。Inotebeforehandthatincomesfromthissourcepayincometaxoneverythingover£60。TheseincomesliabletotaxationinEngland，WalesandScotland，amountedin1864to£95，844，222。
in1865to£105，435，579。[36]Thenumberofpersonstaxedwerein1864，308，416，outofapopulationof23，891，009;in1865，332，431outofapopulationof24，127，003。Thefollowingtableshowsthedistributionoftheseincomesinthetwoyears:
YearendingApril5th，1864。YearendingApril5th，1865。
IncomefromProfitsIncomefromPeopleIncomefromProfitsIncomefromPeopleTotalIncome£95，844，222308，416105，435，738332，431
ofthese57，028，28923，33464，554，29724，265
ofthese36，415，2253，61942，535，5764，021
ofthese22，809，78183227，555，313973
ofthese8，744，7629111，077，238107In1855therewereproducedintheUnitedKingdom61，453，079tonsofcoal，ofvalue£16，113，167;in1864，92，787，873tons，ofvalue£23，197，968;
in1855，3，218，154tonsofpig—iron，ofvalue£8，045，385;1864，4，767，951
tons，ofvalue£11，919，877。In1854thelengthoftherailroadsworkedintheUnitedKingdomwas8，054miles，withapaid—upcapitalof£286，068，794;
in1864thelengthwas12，789miles，withcapitalpaidupof£425，719，613。
In1854thetotalsumoftheexportsandimportsoftheUnitedKingdomwas£268，210，145;in1865，£489，923，285。Thefollowingtableshowsthemovementoftheexports:
1846£58，842，377
184963，596，052
1856115，826，948
1860135，842，817
1865165，862，402
1866188，917，563[37]
AfterthesefewexamplesoneunderstandsthecryoftriumphoftheRegistrar—GeneraloftheBritishpeople:\"Rapidlyasthepopulationhasincreased，ithasnotkeptpacewiththeprogressofindustryandwealth。\"[38]
Letusturnnowtothedirectagentsofthisindustry，ortheproducersofthiswealth，totheworking—class。\"Itisoneofthemostmelancholyfeaturesinthesocialstateofthiscountry，\"saysGladstone，\"thatwhiletherewasadecreaseintheconsumingpowersofthepeople，andwhiletherewasanincreaseintheprivationsanddistressofthelabouringclassandoperatives，therewasatthesametimeaconstantaccumulationofwealthintheupperclasses，andaconstantincreaseofcapital。\"[39]ThusspakethisunctuousministerintheHouseofCommonsofFebruary13th，1843。OnApril16th，1863，20yearslater，inthespeechinwhichheintroducedhisBudget:\"From1842to1852thetaxableincomeofthecountryincreasedby6percent……Inthe8yearsfrom1853to1861ithadincreasedfromthebasistakenin1853by20percent。！Thefactissoastonishingastohealmostincredible……thisintoxicatingaugmentationofwealthandpower……entirelyconfinedtoclassesofproperty……mustbeofindirectbenefittothelabouringpopulation，becauseitcheapensthecommoditiesofgeneralconsumption。Whiletherichhavebeengrowingricher，thepoorhavebeengrowinglesspoor。Atanyrate，whethertheextremesofpovertyareless，Idonotpresumetosay。\"[40]Howlameananti—climax！Iftheworking—classhasremained\"poor，\"only\"lesspoor\"inproportionasitproducesforthewealthyclass\"anintoxicatingaugmentationofwealthandpower，\"thenithasremainedrelativelyjustaspoor。Iftheextremesofpovertyhavenotlessened，theyhaveincreased，becausetheextremesofwealthhave。Astothecheapeningofthemeansofsubsistence，theofficialstatistics，e。g。，theaccountsoftheLondonOrphanAsylum，showanincreaseinpriceof20%fortheaverageofthethreeyears1860—1862，comparedwith1851—1853。Inthefollowingthreeyears，1863—1865，therewasaprogressiveriseinthepriceofmeat，butter，milk，sugar。