Alltheseshiftsnaturallywereofnoavail。TheFactoryInspectorsappealedtotheLawCourts。ButsoonsuchacloudofdustinthewayofpetitionsfromthemastersoverwhelmedtheHomeSecretary，SirGeorgeGrey，thatinacircularofAugust5th，1848，herecommendstheinspectorsnot\"tolayinformationsagainstmill—ownersforabreachoftheletteroftheAct，orforemploymentofyoungpersonsbyrelaysincasesinwhichthereisnoreasontobelievethatsuchyoungpersonshavebeenactuallyemployedforalongerperiodthanthatsanctionedbylaw。\"Hereupon，FactoryInspectorJ。Stuartallowedtheso—calledrelaysystemduringthe15hoursofthefactorydaythroughoutScotland，whereitsoonflourishedagainasofold。TheEnglishFactoryInspectors，ontheotherhand，declaredthattheHomeSecretaryhadnopowerdictatoriallytosuspendthelaw，andcontinuedtheirlegalproceedingsagainstthepro—slaveryrebellion。
ButwhatwasthegoodofsummoningthecapitalistswhentheCourtsinthiscasethecountrymagistrates？Cobbett’s\"GreatUnpaid\"？acquittedthem？Inthesetribunals，themasterssatinjudgmentonthemselvesAnexample。OneEskrigge，cotton—spinner，ofthefirmofKershaw，Leese，&Co。，hadlaidbeforetheFactoryInspectorofhisdistricttheschemeofarelaysystemintendedforhismilp;Receivingarefusal，heatfirstkeptquiet。Afewmonthslater，anindividualnamedRobinson，alsoacotton—spinner，andifnothisManFriday，atalleventsrelatedtoEskrigge，appearedbeforetheboroughmagistratesofStockportonachargeofintroducingtheidenticalplanofrelaysinventedbyEskrigge。
FourJusticessat，amongthemthreecottonspinners，attheirheadthissameinevitableEskrigge。EskriggeacquittedRobinson，andnowwasofopinionthatwhatwasrightforRobinsonwasfairforEskrigge。Supportedbyhisownlegaldecision，heintroducedthesystematonceintohisownfactory。[122]Ofcourse，thecompositionofthistribunalwasinitselfaviolationofthelaw。[123]Thesejudicialfarces，exclaimsInspectorHowell，\"urgentlycallforaremedy？eitherthatthelawshouldbesoalteredastobemadetoconformtothesedecisions，orthatitshouldbeadministeredbyalessfallibletribunal，whosedecisionswouldconformtothelaw……whenthesecasesarebroughtforward。Ilongforastipendiarymagistrate。;[124]
Thecrownlawyersdeclaredthemasters’interpretationoftheActof1848absurd。ButtheSavioursofSocietywouldnotallowthemselvestobeturnedfromtheirpurpose。LeonardHomerreports，\"HavingendeavouredtoenforcetheAct……bytenprosecutionsinsevenmagisterialdivisions，andhavingbeensupportedbythemagistratesinonecaseonly……Iconsideredituselesstoprosecutemoreforthisevasionofthelaw。ThatpartoftheActof1848whichwasframedforsecuringuniformityinthehoursofwork，……isthusnolongerinforceinmydistrict（Lancashire）。Neitherhavethesub—inspectorsormyselfanymeansofsatisfyingourselves，whenweinspectamillworkingbyshifts，thattheyoungpersonsandwomenarenotworkingmorethan10hoursa—day……Inareturnofthe30thApril，……ofmillownersworkingbyshifts，thenumberamountsto114，andhasbeenforsometimerapidlyincreasing。Ingeneral，thetimeofworkingthemillisextendedto131/2hours’from6a。m。to71/2p。m。，……insomeinstancesitamountsto15
hours，from51/2a。m。to81/2p。m。\"[125]Already，inDecember，1848，LeonardHomerhadalistof65manufacturersand29overlookerswhounanimouslydeclaredthatnosystemofsupervisioncould，underthisrelaysystem，preventenormousover—work。[126]Now，thesamechildrenandyoungpersonswereshiftedfromthespinning—roomtotheweaving—room，now，during15hours，fromonefactorytoanother。[127]Howwasitpossibletocontrolasystemwhich，\"undertheguiseofrelays，issomeoneofthemanyplansforshuffling’thehands’aboutinendlessvariety，andshiftingthehoursofworkandofrestfordifferentindividualsthroughouttheday，sothatyoumayneverhaveonecompletesetofhandsworkingtogetherinthesameroomatthesametime。\"[128]
Butaltogetherindependentlyofactualover—work，thisso—calledrelaysystemwasanoffspringofcapitalisticfantasy，suchasFourier，inhishumoroussketchesof\"CoursesSeances，\"hasneversurpassed，exceptthatthe\"attractionoflabour\"waschangedintotheattractionofcapital。
Look，forexample，atthoseschemesofthemasterswhichthe\"respectable\"
presspraisedasmodelsof\"whatareasonabledegreeofcareandmethodcanaccomplish。\"Thepersonneloftheworkpeoplewassometimesdividedintofrom12to14categories，whichthemselvesconstantlychangedandrechargedtheirconstituentparts。Duringthe15hoursofthefactoryday，capitaldraggedinthelabourernowfor30minutes，nowforanhour，andthenpushedhimoutagain，todraghimintothefactoryandtothrusthimoutafresh，houndinghimhitherandthither，inscatteredshredsoftime，withouteverlosingholdofhimuntilthefull10hours’workwasdone。
Asonthestage，thesamepersonshadtoappearinturnsinthedifferentscenesofthedifferentacts。Butasanactorduringthewholecourseoftheplaybelongstothestage，sotheoperatives，during15hours，belongedtothefactory，withoutreckoningthetimeforgoingandcoming。Thusthehoursofrestwereturnedintohoursofenforcedidleness，whichdrovetheyouthstothepot—house，andthegirlstothebrothel。Ateverynewtrickthatthecapitalist，fromdaytoday，hituponforkeepinghismachinerygoing12or15hourswithoutincreasingthenumberofhishands，theworkerhadtoswallowhismealsnowinthisfragmentoftime，nowinthat。Atthetimeofthe10hours’agitation，themasterscriedoutthattheworkingmobpetitionedinthehopeofobtaining12hours’wagesfor10hours’work。
Nowtheyreversedthemedal。Theypaid10hours’wagesfor12or15hours’lordshipoverlabour—power。[129]Thiswasthegistofthematter，thisthemasters’interpretationofthe10hours’law！ThesewerethesameunctuousFree—traders，perspiringwiththeloveofhumanity，whoforfull10years，duringtheAnti—CornLawagitation，hadpreachedtotheoperatives，byareckoningofpounds，shillings，andpence，thatwithfreeimportationofcorn，andwiththemeanspossessedbyEnglishindustry，10hours’labourwouldbequiteenoughtoenrichthecapitalists。[130]Thisrevoltofcapital，aftertwoyearswasatlastcrownedwithvictorybyadecisionofoneofthefourhighestCourtsofJusticeinEngland，theCourtofExchequer，whichinacasebroughtbeforeitonFebruary8th，1850，decidedthatthemanufacturerswerecertainlyactingagainstthesenseoftheActof1844，butthatthisActitselfcontainedcertainwordsthatrendereditmeaningless。\"Bythisdecision，theTenHours’Actwasabolished。\"[131]Acrowdofmasters，whountilthenhadbeenafraidofusingtherelaysystemforyoungpersonsandwomen，nowtookitupheartandsoul。[132]
Butonthisapparentlydecisivevictoryofcapital，followedatoncearevulsion。Theworkpeoplehadhithertoofferedapassive，althoughinflexibleandunremittingresistance。TheynowprotestedinLancashireandYorkshireinthreateningmeetings。ThepretendedTenHours’Actwasthussimplehumbug，parliamentarycheating，hadneverexisted！TheFactoryInspectorsurgentlywarnedtheGovernmentthattheantagonismofclasseshadarrivedatanincredibletension。Someofthemastersthemselvesmurmured:\"Onaccountofthecontradictorydecisionsofthemagistrates，aconditionofthingsaltogetherabnormalandanarchicalobtains。OnelawholdsinYorkshire，anotherinLancashire，onelawinoneparishofLancashire，anotherinitsimmediateneighbourhood。Themanufacturerinlargetownscouldevadethelaw，themanufacturerincountrydistrictscouldnotfindthepeoplenecessaryfortherelaysystem，stilllessfortheshiftingofhandsfromonefactorytoanother，\"&c。Andthefirstbirthrightofcapitalisequalexploitationoflabour—powerbyallcapitalists。
UnderthesecircumstancesacompromisebetweenmastersandmenwaseffectedthatreceivedthesealofParliamentintheadditionalFactoryActofAugust5th，1850。Theworking—dayfor\"youngpersonsandwomen，\"
wasraisedfrom10to10？hoursforthefirstfivedaysoftheweek，andshortenedto71/2ontheSaturday。Theworkwastogoonbetween6a。m。
and6p。m。;[133]withpausesofnotlessthan11/2hoursformeal—times，thesemeal—timestobeallowedatoneandthesametimeforall，andconformablytotheconditionsof1844。Bythisanendwasputtotherelaysystemonceforall。[134]Forchildren’slabour，theActof1844remainedinforce。
Onesetofmasters，thistimeasbefore，securedtoitselfspecialseigneurialrightsoverthechildrenoftheproletariat。Thesewerethesilkmanufacturers。
In1833theyhadhowledoutinthreateningfashion，\"ifthelibertyofworkingchildrenofanyagefor10hoursadayweretakenaway，itwouldstoptheirworks。\"[135]Itwouldbeimpossibleforthemtobuyasufficientnumberofchildrenover13。Theyextortedtheprivilegetheydesired。Thepretextwasshownonsubsequentinvestigationtobeadeliberatelie。[136]Itdidnot，however，preventthem，during10years，fromspinningsilk10hoursadayoutofthebloodoflittlechildrenwhohadtobeplaceduponstoolsfortheperformanceoftheirwork。[137]TheActof1844certainly\"robbed\"themofthe\"liberty\"ofemployingchildrenunder11longerthan61/2hoursaday。Butitsecuredtothem，ontheotherhand，theprivilegeofworkingchildrenbetween11and13，10hoursaday，andofannullingintheircasetheeducationmadecompulsoryforallotherfactorychildren。Thistimethepretextwas\"thedelicatetextureofthefabricinwhichtheywereemployed，requiringalightnessoftouch，onlytobeacquiredbytheirearlyintroductiontothesefactories。\"[138]Thechildrenwereslaughteredout—and—outforthesakeoftheirdelicatefingers，asinSouthernRussiathehornedcattleforthesakeoftheirhideandtallow。Atlength，in1850，theprivilegegrantedin1844，waslimitedtothedepartmentsofsilk—twistingandsilk—winding。Buthere，tomakeamendstocapitalbereftofits\"freedom，\"thework—limeforchildrenfrom11to13wasraisedfrom10to101/2hours。
Pretext:\"Labourinsilkmillswaslighterthaninmillsforotherfabrics，andlesslikelyinotherrespectsalsotobeprejudicialtohealth。\"[139]Officialmedicalinquiriesprovedafterwardsthat，onthecontrary，\"theaveragedeath—rateisexceedinglyhighinthesilkdistrictsandamongstthefemalepartofthepopulationishighereventhanitisinthecottondistrictsofLancashire。\"[140]DespitetheprotestsoftheFactoryInspector，renewedevery6months，themischiefcontinuestothishour。[141]
TheActof1850changedthe15hours’timefrom6a。m。to8。30p。m。，intothe12hoursfrom6a。m。to6p。m。for\"youngpersonsandwomen\"only。
Itdidnot，therefore，affectchildrenwhocouldalwaysbeemployedforhalfanhourbeforeand21/2hoursafterthisperiod，providedthewholeoftheirlabourdidnotexceed61/2hours。Whilstthebillwasunderdiscussion，theFactoryInspectorslaidbeforeParliamentstatisticsoftheinfamousabusesduetothisanomaly。Tonopurpose。Inthebackgroundlurkedtheintentionofscrewingup，duringprosperousyears，theworking—dayofadultmalesto15hoursbytheaidofthechildren。Theexperienceofthethreefollowingyearsshowedthatsuchanattemptmustcometogriefagainsttheresistanceoftheadultmaleoperatives。TheActof1850wasthereforefinallycompletedin1853byforbiddingthe\"employmentofchildreninthemorningbeforeandintheeveningafteryoungpersonsandwomen。\"HenceforthwithafewexceptionstheFactoryActof1850regulatedtheworking—dayofallworkersinthebranchesofindustrythatcomeunderit。[142]SincethepassingofthefirstFactoryActhalfacenturyhadelapsed。[143]
Factorylegislationforthefirsttimewentbeyonditsoriginalsphereinthe\"Printworks’Actof1845。\"Thedispleasurewithwhichcapitalreceivedthisnew\"extravagance\"speaksthrougheverylineoftheAct。Itlimitstheworking—dayforchildrenfrom8to13，andforwomento16hours，between6a。m。and10p。m。，withoutanylegalpauseformeal—times。Itallowsmalesover13tobeworkedatwilldayandnight。[144]ItisaParliamentaryabortion。[145]
However，theprinciplehadtriumphedwithitsvictoryinthosegreatbranchesofindustrywhichformthemostcharacteristiccreationofthemodernmodeofproduction。Theirwonderfuldevelopmentfrom1853to1860，hand—in—handwiththephysicalandmoralregenerationofthefactoryworkers，struckthemostpurblind。Themastersfromwhomthelegallimitationandregulationhadbeenwrungstepbystepafteracivilwarofhalfacentury，themselvesreferredostentatiouslytothecontrastwiththebranchesofexploitationstill\"free。\"[146]ThePhariseesof\"PoliticalEconomy\"nowproclaimedthediscernmentofthenecessityofalegallyfixedworking—dayasacharacteristicnewdiscoveryoftheir\"science。\"[147]Itwillbeeasilyunderstoodthatafterthefactorymagnateshadresignedthemselvesandbecomereconciledtotheinevitable，thepowerofresistanceofcapitalgraduallyweakened，whilstatthesametimethepowerofattackoftheworking—classgrewwiththenumberofitsalliesintheclassesofsocietynotimmediatelyinterestedinthequestion。Hencethecomparativelyrapidadvancesince1860。
Thedye—worksandbleach—worksallcameundertheFactoryActof1850
in1860;[148]laceandstockingmanufacturesin1861。
InconsequenceofthefirstreportoftheCommissionontheemploymentofchildren（1863）thesamefatewassharedbythemanufacturersofallearthenwares（notmerelypottery），Lucifer—matches，percussioncaps，cartridges，carpets，fustian—cutting，andmanyprocessesincludedunderthenameof\"finishing。\"Intheyear1863bleachingintheopenair[149]andbakingwereplacedunderspecialActs，bywhich，intheformer，thelabourofyoungpersonsandwomenduringthenight—time（from8intheeveningto6inthemorning），andinthelatter，theemploymentofjourneymenbakersunder18，between9intheeveningand5inthemorningwereforbidden。
WeshallreturntothelaterproposalsofthesameCommission，whichthreatenedtodepriveoftheir\"freedom\"alltheimportantbranchesofEnglishIndustry，withtheexceptionofagriculture，mines，andthemeansoftransport。[150]
SECTION7THESTRUGGLEFORTHENORMALWORKING—DAY。
RE—ACTIONOFTHEENGLISHFACTORYACTSONOTHERCOUNTRIES
Thereaderwillbearinmindthattheproductionofsurplus—value，ortheextractionofsurplus—labour，isthespecificendandaim，thesumandsubstance，ofcapitalistproduction，quiteapartfromanychangesinthemodeofproduction，whichmayarisefromthesubordinationoflabourtocapital。Hewillrememberthatasfaraswehaveatpresentgoneonlytheindependentlabourer，andthereforeonlythelabourerlegallyqualifiedtoactforhimself，entersasavendorofacommodityintoacontractwiththecapitalist。If，therefore，inourhistoricalsketch，ontheonehand，modernindustry，ontheother，thelabourofthosewhoarephysicallyandlegallyminors，playimportantparts，theformerwastousonlyaspecialdepartment，andthelatteronlyaspeciallystrikingexampleoflabourexploitation。Without，however，anticipatingthesubsequentdevelopmentofourinquiry，fromthemereconnexionofthehistoricfactsbeforeusitfollows:
First。Thepassionofcapitalforanunlimitedandrecklessextensionoftheworking—day，isfirstgratifiedintheindustriesearliestrevolutionisedbywater—power，steam，andmachinery，inthosefirstcreationsofthemodernmodeofproduction，cotton，wool，flax，andsilkspinning，andweaving。
Thechangesinthematerialmodeofproduction，andthecorrespondingchangesinthesocialrelationsoftheproducers[151]gaverisefirsttoanextravagancebeyondallbounds，andtheninoppositiontothis，calledforthacontrolonthepartofSocietywhichlegallylimits，regulates，andmakesuniformtheworking—dayanditspauses。Thiscontrolappears，therefore，duringthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturysimplyasexceptionallegislation。[152]Assoonasthisprimitivedominionofthenewmodeofproductionwasconquered，itwasfoundthat，inthemeantime，notonlyhadmanyotherbranchesofproductionbeenmadetoadoptthesamefactorysystem，butthatmanufactureswithmoreorlessobsoletemethods，suchaspotteries，glass—making，&c。，thatold—fashionedhandicrafts，likebaking，and，finally，eventhattheso—calleddomesticindustries，suchasnail—making，[153]hadlongsincefallenascompletelyundercapitalistexploitationasthefactoriesthemselves。Legislationwas，therefore，compelledtograduallygetridofitsexceptionalcharacter，orwhere，asinEngland，itproceedsafterthemanneroftheRomanCasuists，todeclareanyhouseinwhichworkwasdonetobeafactory。[154]
Second。Thehistoryoftheregulationoftheworking—dayincertainbranchesofproduction，andthestrugglestillgoingoninothersinregardtothisregulation，proveconclusivelythattheisolatedlabourer，thelaboureras\"free\"vendorofhislabour—power，whencapitalistproductionhasonceattainedacertainstage，succumbswithoutanypowerofresistance。Thecreationofanormalworking—dayis，therefore，theproductofaprotractedcivilwar，moreorlessdissembled，betweenthecapitalistclassandtheworking—class。Asthecontesttakesplaceinthearenaofmodernindustry，itfirstbreaksoutinthehomeofthatindustry？England;[155]TheEnglishfactoryworkerswerethechampions，notonlyoftheEnglish，butofthemodernworking—classgenerally，astheirtheoristswerethefirsttothrowdownthegauntlettothetheoryofcapital。[156]Hence，thephilosopheroftheFactory，Ure，denouncesasanineffabledisgracetotheEnglishworking—classthattheyinscribed\"theslaveryoftheFactoryActs\"onthebannerwhichtheyboreagainstcapital，manfullystrivingfor\"perfectfreedomoflabour。\"[157]
FrancelimpsslowlybehindEngland。TheFebruaryrevolutionwasnecessarytobringintotheworldthe12hours’law，[158]whichismuchmoredeficientthanitsEnglishoriginal。
Forallthat，theFrenchrevolutionarymethodhasitsspecialadvantages。
Itonceforallcommandsthesamelimittotheworking—dayinallshopsandfactorieswithoutdistinction，whilstEnglishlegislationreluctantlyyieldstothepressureofcircumstances，nowonthispoint，nowonthat，andisgettinglostinahopelesslybewilderingtangleofcontradictoryenactments。[159]Ontheotherhand，theFrenchlawproclaimsasaprinciplethatwhichinEnglandwasonlywoninthenameofchildren，minors，andwomen，andhasbeenonlyrecentlyforthefirsttimeclaimedasageneralright。[160]
IntheUnitedStatesofNorthAmerica，everyindependentmovementoftheworkerswasparalysedsolongasslaverydisfiguredapartoftheRepublic。
Labourcannotemancipateitselfinthewhiteskinwhereintheblackitisbranded。Butoutofthedeathofslaveryanewlifeatoncearose。ThefirstfruitoftheCivilWarwastheeighthours’agitation，thatranwiththeseven—leaguedbootsofthelocomotivefromtheAtlantictothePacific，fromNewEnglandtoCalifornia。TheGeneralCongressoflabouratBaltimore（August16th，1866）declared:\"Thefirstandgreatnecessityofthepresent，tofreethelabourofthiscountryfromcapitalisticslavery，isthepassingofalawbywhicheighthoursshallbethenormalworking—dayinallStatesoftheAmericanUnion。Weareresolvedtoputforthallourstrengthuntilthisgloriousresultisattained。\"[161]Atthesametime，theCongressoftheInternationalWorkingMen’sAssociationatGeneva，onthepropositionoftheLondonGeneralCouncil，resolvedthat\"thelimitationoftheworking—dayisapreliminaryconditionwithoutwhichallfurtherattemptsatimprovementandemancipationmustproveabortive……theCongressproposeseighthoursasthelegallimitoftheworking—day。\"
Thusthemovementoftheworking—classonbothsidesoftheAtlantic，thathadgrowninstinctivelyoutoftheconditionsofproductionthemselves，endorsedthewordsoftheEnglishFactoryInspector，R。J。Saunders\"Furtherstepstowardsareformationofsocietycanneverbecarriedoutwithanyhopeofsuccess，unlessthehoursoflabourbelimited，andtheprescribedlimitstrictlyenforced。\"[162]
Itmustbeacknowledgedthatourlabourercomesoutoftheprocessofproductionotherthanheentered。Inthemarkethestoodasownerofthecommodity\"labour—power\"facetofacewithotherownersofcommodities，dealeragainstdealer。Thecontractbywhichhesoldtothecapitalisthislabour—powerproved，sotosay，inblackandwhitethathedisposedofhimselffreely。Thebargainconcluded，itisdiscoveredthathewasno\"freeagent，\"thatthetimeforwhichheisfreetosellhislabour—poweristhetimeforwhichheisforcedtosellit，[163]thatinfactthevampirewillnotloseitsholdonhim\"solongasthereisamuscle，anerve，adropofbloodtobeexploited。\"[164]For\"protection\"against\"theserpentoftheiragonies，\"thelabourersmustputtheirheadstogether，and，asaclass，compelthepassingofalaw，anall—powerfulsocialbarrierthatshallpreventtheveryworkersfromselling。byvoluntarycontractwithcapital，themselvesandtheirfamiliesintoslaveryanddeath。[165]Inplaceofthepompouscatalogueofthe\"inalienablerightsofman\"comesthemodestMagnaChartaofalegallylimitedworking—day，whichshallmakeclear\"whenthetimewhichtheworkersellsisended，andwhenhisownbegins。\"[166]Quantummutatusabillo！
Footnotes[1]\"Aday’slabourisvague，itmaybelongorshort。\"（\"AnEssayonTradeandCommerce，ContainingObservationsonTaxes，&c。\"London。1770，p。73。）
[2]ThisquestionisfarmoreimportantthanthecelebratedquestionofSirRobertPeeltotheBirminghamChamberofCommerce:Whatisapound？Aquestionthatcouldonlyhavebeenproposed，becausePeelwasasmuchinthedarkastothenatureofmoneyasthe\"littleshillingmen\"ofBirmingham。
[3]\"Itistheaimofthecapitalisttoobtainwithhisexpendedcapitalthegreatestpossiblequantityoflabour（d’obtenirducapitaldepenselaplusfortesommedetravailpossible）。J。G。Courcelle—Seneuil。\"Traité
théoriqueetpratiquedesentreprisesindustrielles。\"2nded。Paris，1857，p。63。
[4]\"Anhour’slabourlostinadayisaprodigiousinjurytoacommercialState……Thereisaverygreatconsumptionofluxuriesamongthelabouringpoorofthiskingdom:particularlyamongthemanufacturingpopulace，bywhichtheyalsoconsumetheirtime，themostfatalofconsumptions。\"\"AnEssayonTradeandCommerce，&c。，\"p。47，and153。
[5]\"Silemanouvrierlibreprenduninstantderepos，I’économiesordidequilesuitdesyeuxavecinquiétude，prétendqu’illavole。\"
N。Linguet，\"ThéoriedesLoisCiviles。&c。\"London，1767，t。
II。，p。466。
[6]DuringthegreatstrikeoftheLondonbuilders，1860—61，forthereductionoftheworking—dayto9hours，theirCommitteepublishedamanifestothatcontained，tosomeextent，thepleaofourworker。Themanifestoalludes，notwithoutirony，tothefact，thatthegreatestprofit—mongeramongstthebuildingmasters，acertainSirM。Peto，wasintheodourofsanctity（ThissamePeto，after1867，cametoanendalaStrousberg。）
[7]\"Thosewholabour……inrealityfeedboththepensioners……[calledtherich]andthemselves。\"（EdmundBurke，l。c。，p。2。）
[8]Niebuhrinhis\"RomanHistory\"saysverynaively:\"ItisevidentthatworksliketheEtruscan，whichintheirruinsastoundus，pre—supposeinlittle（！）stateslordsandvassals。\"Sismondisaysfarmoretothepurposethat\"Brusselslace\"pre—supposeswage—lordsandwage—slaves。
[9]\"Onecannotseetheseunfortunates（inthegoldminesbetweenEgypt，Ethiopia，andArabia）whocannotevenhavetheirbodiesdean，ortheirnakednessclothed，withoutpityingtheirmiserablelot。Thereisnoindulgence，noforbearanceforthesick，thefeeble，theaged，forwoman’sweakness。Allmust，forcedbyblows，workonuntildeathputsanendtotheirsufferingsandtheirdistress。\"（\"Diod。Sic。Bibl。Hist。，\"lib。2，c。13。）
[10]ThatwhichfollowsreferstothesituationintheRoumanianprovincesbeforethechangeeffectedsincetheCrimeanwar。
[11]ThisholdslikewiseforGermany，andespeciallyforPrussiaeastoftheElbe。Inthe15thcenturytheGermanpeasantwasnearlyeverywhereaman，who，whilstsubjecttocertainrentspaidinproduceandlabourwasotherwiseatleastpracticallyfree。TheGermancolonistsinBrandenburg，Pomerania，Silesia，andEasternPrussia，wereevenlegallyacknowledgedasfreemen。
Thevictoryofthenobilityinthepeasants’warputanendtothat。NotonlyweretheconqueredSouthGermanpeasantsagainenslaved。Fromthemiddleofthe16thcenturythepeasantsofEasternPrussia，Brandenburg，Pomerania，andSilesia，andsoonafterthefreepeasantsofSchleswig—Holsteinweredegradedtotheconditionofserfs。（Maurer，Fronhöfeiv。vol。，？Meitzen，\"DerBodendespreussischenStaats\"？Hanssen，``LeibeigenschaftinSchleswig—Holstein。\"？F。E。）
[12]FurtherdetailsaretobefoundinE。Regnault’s\"HistoirepolitiqueetsocialedesPrincipautésDanubiennes，\"Paris，1855。
[13]\"Ingeneralandwithincertainlimits，exceedingthemediumsizeoftheirkind，isevidenceoftheprosperityoforganicbeings。Astoman，hisbodilyheightlessensifhisduegrowthisinterferedwith，eitherbyphysicalorlocalconditions。InallEuropeancountriesinwhichtheconscriptionholds，sinceitsintroduction，themediumheightofadultmen，andgenerallytheirfitnessformilitaryservice，hasdiminished。Beforetherevolution（1789），theminimumfortheinfantryinFrancewas165centimetres;in1818（lawofMarch10th），157;bythelawofMarch21，1832，156c。m。;
ontheaverageinFrancemorethanhalfarerejectedonaccountofdeficientheightorbodilyweakness。ThemilitarystandardinSaxonywasin1780，178c。m。Itisnow155。InPrussiaitis157。AccordingtothestatementofDr。MeyerintheBavarianGazette，May9th，1862，theresultofanaverageof9yearsis，thatinPrussiaoutof1，000conscripts716wereunfitformilitaryservice，317becauseofdeficiencyinheight，and399becauseofbodilydefects……Berlinin1858couldnotprovideitscontingentofrecruits，itwas156menshort。\"J。vonLiebig:\"DieChemieinihrerAnwendungaufAgrikulturundPhysiologie。1862，\"7thEd。，vol。1，pp。117，118。
[14]ThehistoryoftheFactoryActof1850willbefoundinthecourseofthischapter。
[15]IonlytouchhereandthereontheperiodfromthebeginningofmodernindustryinEnglandto1845。ForthisperiodIreferthereaderto\"DieLagederarbeitendenKlasseinEngland，\"vonFriedrichEngels，Leipzig，1845。HowcompletelyEngelsunderstoodthenatureofthecapitalistmodeofproductionisshownbytheFactoryReports，ReportsonMines，&c。，thathaveappearedsince1845，andhowwonderfullyhepaintedthecircumstancesindetailisseenonthemostsuperficialcomparisonofhisworkwiththeoff~—cialreportsoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission，published18
to20yearslater（1863—1867）。ThesedealespeciallywiththebranchesofindustryinwhichtheFactoryActshadnot，upto1862，beenintroduced，infactarenotyetintroduced。Here，then，littleornoalterationhadbeenenforced，byauthority，intheconditionspaintedbyEngels。IborrowmyexampleschieflyfromtheFree—tradeperiodafter1848，thatageofparadise，ofwhichthecommercialtravellersforthegreatfirmofFree—trade，blatantasignorant，tellsuchfabuloustales。FortherestEnglandfigureshereintheforegroundbecausesheistheclassicrepresentativeofcapitalistproduction，andshealonehasacontinuoussetofofficialctatisticsofthethin~sweareconsiderinR。
[16]\"Suggestions，&c。byMr。L。Homer，InspectorofFactories，\"inFactoriesRegulationActs。OrderedbytheHouseofCommonstobeprinted，9thAugust，1859，pp。4，5。
[17]ReportsoftheInspectorofFactoriesforthehalfyear。October，1856，p。35。
[18]Reports，&c。，30thApril，1858，p。9。
[19]Reports，&c。，l。c。，p。10。
[20]Reports&c。，l。c。，p。25。
[21]Reports&c。，forthehalfyearending30thApril，1861。SeeAppendixNo。2;Reports，&c。，31stOctober，1862，pp。7，52，53。TheviolationsoftheActsbecamemorenumerousduringthelasthalfyear1863。CfReports，&c。，ending31stOctober，1863，p。7。
[22]Reports，&c。，October31st，1860，p。23。Withwhatfanaticism，accordingtotheevidenceofmanufacturersgivenincourtsoflaw，theirhandssetthemselvesagainsteveryinterruptioninfactorylabour，thefollowingcuriouscircumstanceshows。InthebeginningofJune，1836，informationreachedthemagistratesofDewsbury（Yorkshire）thattheownersof8largemillsintheneighbourhoodofBatleyhadviolatedtheFactoryActs。Someofthesegentlemenwereaccusedofhavingkeptatwork5boysbetween12
and15yearsofage，from6a。m。onFridayto4p。m。onthefollowingSaturday，notallowingthemanyrespiteexceptformealsandonehourforsleepatmidnight。Andthesechildrenhadtodothisceaselesslabourof30hoursinthe\"shoddyhole，\"astheholeiscalled，inwhichthewoollenragsarepulledinpieces，andwhereadenseatmosphereofdust，shreds，&c。，forceseventheadultworkmantocoverhismouthcontinuallywithhandkerchiefsfortheprotectionofhislungs！Theaccusedgentlemenaffirminlieuoftakinganoath？asquakerstheyweretooscrupulouslyreligioustotakeanoath？thattheyhad，intheirgreatcompassionfortheunhappychildren，allowedthemfourhoursforsleep，buttheobstinatechildrenabsolutelywouldnotgotobed。Thequakergentlemenweremulctedin£20。Drydenanticipatedthesegentry:
Foxfullfraughtinseemingsanctity，Thatfearedanoath，butlikethedevilwouldlie，Thatlook’dlikeLent，andhadtheholyleer，Anddurstnotsin！beforehesaidhisprayer！\"
[23]Rep。，31stOct。，1856，p。34。
[24]l。c。，p。35。
[25]l。c。，p。48。
[26]l。c。，p。48。
[27]l。c。，p。48。
[28]l。c。，p。48。
[29]ReportoftheInsp。&c。，30thApril1860，p。56。
[30]Thisistheofficialexpressionbothinthefactoriesandinthereports。
[31]\"Thecupidityofmill—ownerswhosecrueltiesinthepursuitofgainhavehardlybeenexceededbythoseperpetratedbytheSpaniardsontheconquestofAmericainthepursuitofgold。\"JohnWade，\"HistoryoftheMiddleandWorkingClasses，\"3rdEd。London，1835，p。114。Thetheoreticalpartofthisbook，akindofhand—bookofPoliticalEconomy，is，consideringthetimeofitspublication，originalinsomeparts，e。g。，oncommercialcrises。Thehistoricalpartis，toagreatextent，ashamelessplagiarismofSirF。M。Eden’s``TheStateofthePoor，\"London，1797。
[32]DailyTelegraph，17thJanuary，1860。
[33]Cf。F。Engels\"Lage，etc。\"pp。249—51。
[34]Children’sEmploymentCommission。Firstreport。，etc。，1863。Evidence。
pp。16，19，18。
[35]PublicHealth，3rdreport，etc。，pp。102，104，105。
[36]Child。Empl。Comm。I。Report，p。24。
[37]Children’sEmploymentCommission，p。22，andxi。
[38]l。c。，p。xlviii。
[39]l。c。，p。liv。
[40]Thisisnottobetakeninthesamesenseasoursurplus—labourtime。Thesegentlemenconsider101/2hoursoflabourasthenormalworking—day，whichincludesofcoursethenormalsurplus—labour。Afterthisbegins\"over—time\"
whichispaidalittlebetter。Itwillbeseenlaterthatthelabourexpendedduringtheso—callednormaldayispaidbelowitsvalue，sothattheover—timeissimplyacapitalisttrickinordertoextortmoresurplus—labour，whichitwouldstillbe，everiifthelabour—powerexpendedduringthenormalworking—daywereproperlypaid。
[41]l。c。，Evidence，pp。123，124，125，140，and54。