Theworking—dayforallartificersandfieldlabourersfromMarchtoSeptemberought，accordingtothisstatute（which，however，couldnotbeenforced），tolastfrom5inthemorningtobetween7and8intheevening。Butthemeal—timesconsistof1hourforbreakfast，11/2hoursfordinner，and1/2anhourfor\"noon—meate，\"i。e。，exactlytwiceasmuchasunderthefactoryactsnowinforce。[86]Inwinter，workwastolastfrom5inthemorninguntildark，withthesameintervals。AstatuteofElizabethof1562leavesthelengthoftheworking—dayforalllabourers\"hiredfordailyorweeklywage\"untouched，butaimsatlimitingtheintervalsto21/2hoursinthesummer，orto2inthewinter。Dinnerisonlytolast1hour，andthe\"afternoon—sleepofhalfanhour\"isonlyallowedbetweenthemiddleofMayandthemiddleofAugust。Foreveryhourofabsence1d。istobesubtractedfromthewage。
Inpractice，however，theconditionsweremuchmorefavourabletothelabourersthaninthestatute—book。WilliamPetty，thefatherofPoliticalEconomy，andtosomeextentthefounderofStatistics，saysinaworkthathepublishedinthelastthirdofthe17thcentury:\"Labouring—men（thenmeaningfield—labourers）
work10hoursperdiem，andmake20mealsperweek，viz。，3adayforworking—days，and2onSundays;wherebyitisplain，thatiftheycouldfastonFridaynights，anddineinonehourandanhalf，whereastheytaketwo，fromeleventoone;therebythusworking1/20more，andspending1/20less，theabove—mentioned（tax）mightberaised。\"[87]WasnotDr。AndrewUrerightincryingdownthe12hours’billof1833
asaretrogressiontothetimesofthedarkages？ItistruetheseregulationscontainedinthestatutementionedbyPetty，applyalsotoapprentices。
Buttheconditionofchild—labour，evenattheendofthe17thcentury，isseenfromthefollowingcomplaint:\"’Tisnottheirpractice（inGermany）
aswithusinthiskingdom，tobindanapprenticeforsevenyears;threeorfouristheircommonstandard:andthereasonis，becausetheyareeducatedfromtheircradletosomethingofemployment，whichrendersthemthemoreaptanddocile，andconsequentlythemorecapableofattainingtoaripenessandquickerproficiencyinbusiness。Whereasouryouth，hereinEngland，beingbredtonothingbeforetheycometobeapprentices，makeaveryslowprogressandrequiremuchlongertimewhereintoreachtheperfectionofaccomplishedartists。\"[88]
Still，duringthegreaterpartofthe18thcentury，uptotheepochofModernIndustryandmachinism，capitalinEnglandhadnotsucceededinseizingforitself，bythepaymentoftheweeklyvalueoflabour—power，thewholeweekofthelabourer，withtheexception，however，oftheagriculturallabourers。Thefactthattheycouldliveforawholeweekonthewageoffourdays，didnotappeartothelabourersasufficientreasonthattheyshouldworktheothertwodaysforthecapitalist。OnepartyofEnglisheconomists，intheinterestofcapital，denouncesthisobstinacyinthemostviolentmanner，anotherpartydefendsthelabourers。Letuslisten，e。g。，tothecontestbetweenPostlethwaytwhoseDictionaryofTradethenhadthesamereputationasthekindredworksofMacCullochandMacGregorto—day，andtheauthor（alreadyquoted）ofthe\"EssayonTradeandCommerce。\"[89]
Postlethwaytsaysamongotherthings:\"Wecannotputanendtothosefewobservations，withoutnoticingthattriteremarkinthemouthoftoomany;thatiftheindustriouspoorcanobtainenoughtomaintainthemselvesinfivedays，theywillnotworkthewholesix。
Whencetheyinferthenecessityofeventhenecessariesoflifebeingmadedearbytaxes，oranyothermeans，tocompeltheworkingartisanandmanufacturertolabourthewholesixdaysintheweek，withoutceasing。Imustbegleavetodifferinsentimentfromthosegreatpoliticians，whocontendfortheperpetualslaveryoftheworkingpeopleofthiskingdom;theyforgetthevulgaradage，allworkandnoplay。HavenottheEnglishboastedoftheingenuityanddexterityofherworkingartistsandmanufacturerswhichhaveheretoforegivencreditandreputationtoBritishwaresingeneral？
Whathasthisbeenowingto？Tonothingmoreprobablythantherelaxationoftheworkingpeopleintheirownway。Weretheyobligedtotoiltheyearround，thewholesixdaysintheweek，inarepetitionofthesamework，mightitnotblunttheiringenuity，andrenderthemstupidinsteadofalertanddexterous;andmightnotourworkmenlosetheirreputationinsteadofmaintainingitbysucheternalslavery？……Andwhatsortofworkmanshipcouldweexpectfromsuchhard—drivenanimals？……ManyofthemwillexecuteasmuchworkinfourdaysasaFrenchmanwillinfiveorsix。ButifEnglishmenaretobeeternaldrudges，’tistobefearedtheywilldegeneratebelowtheFrenchmen。Asourpeoplearefamedforbraveryinwar，dowenotsaythatitisowingtogoodEnglishroestbeefandpuddingintheirbellies，aswellastheirconstitutionalspiritofliberty？
Andwhymaynotthesuperioringenuityanddexterityof，ourartistsandmanufacturers，beowingtothatfreedomandlibertytodirectthemselvesintheirownway，andIhopeweshallneverhavethemdeprivedofsuchprivilegesandthatgoodlivingfromwhencetheiringenuitynolessthantheircouragemayproceed。\"[90]Thereupontheauthorofthe\"EssayonTradeandCommerce\"replies:\"Ifthemakingofeveryseventhdayanholidayissupposedtobeofdivineinstitution，asitimpliestheappropriatingtheothersixdaystolabour\"（hemeanscapitalasweshallsoonsee）\"surelyitwillnotbethoughtcrueltoenforceit……Thatmankindingeneral，arenaturallyinclinedtoeaseandindolence，wefatallyexperiencetobetrue，fromtheconductofourmanufacturingpopulace，whodonotlabour，uponanaverage，abovefourdaysinaweek，unlessprovisionshappentobeverydear……Putallthenecessariesofthepoorunderonedenomination;
forinstance，callthemallwheat，orsupposethat……thebushelofwheatshallcostfiveshillingsandthathe（amanufacturer）earnsashillingbyhislabour，hethenwouldbeobligedtoworkfivedaysonlyinaweek。
Ifthebushelofwheatshouldcostbutfourshillings，hewouldbeobligedtoworkbutfourdays;butaswagesinthiskingdomaremuchhigherinproportiontothepriceofnecessaries……themanufacturer，wholaboursfourdays，hasasurplusofmoneytoliveidlewiththerestoftheweek……IhopeIhavesaidenoughtomakeitappearthatthemoderatelabourofsixdaysinaweekisnoslavery。Ourlabouringpeopledothis，andtoallappearancearethehappiestofallourlabouringpoor，[91]buttheDutchdothisinmanufactures，andappeartobeaveryhappypeople。
TheFrenchdoso，whenholidaysdonotintervene。[92]Butourpopulacehaveadoptedanotion，thatasEnglishmentheyenjoyabirthrightprivilegeofbeingmorefreeandindependentthaninanycountryinEurope。Nowthisidea，asfarasitmayaffectthebraveryofourtroops，maybeofsomeuse;nutthelessthemanufacturingpoorhaveofit，certainlythebetterforthemselvesandfortheState。Thelabouringpeopleshouldnever）thinkthemselvesindependentoftheirsuperiors……Itisextremelydangeroustoencouragemobsinacommercialstatelikeours，where，perhaps，sevenpartsoutofeightofthewhole，arepeoplewithlittleornoproperty。Thecurewillnotbeperfect，tillourmanufacturingpoorarecontentedtolaboursixdaysforthesamesumwhichtheynowearninfourdays。\"[93]Tothisend，andfor\"extirpatingidlenessdebaucheryandexcess，\"promotingaspiritofindustry，\"loweringthepriceoflabourinourmanufactories，andeasingthelandsoftheheavyburdenofpoor’srates，\"our\"faithfulEckart\"ofcapitalproposesthisapproveddevice:toshutupsuchlabourersasbecomedependentonpublicsupport，inaword，paupers，in\"anidealworkhouse。\"Suchidealworkhousemustbemadea\"HouseofTerror，\"andnotanasylumforthepoor，\"wheretheyaretobeplentifullyfed，warmlyanddecentlyclothed，andwheretheydobutlittlework。’’[94]Inthis\"HouseofTerror，\"this\"idealworkhouse，thepoorshallwork14
hoursinaday，allowingpropertimeformeals，insuchmannerthatthereshallremain12hoursofneat—labour。\"[95]
Twelveworking—hoursdailyintheIdealWorkhouse，inthe\"HouseofTerror\"of1770！63yearslater，in1833，whentheEnglishParliamentreducedtheworking—dayforchildrenof13to18，infourbranchesofindustryto12fullhours，thejudgmentdayofEnglishIndustryhaddawned！In1852，whenLouisBonapartesoughttosecurehispositionwiththebourgeoisiebytamperingwiththelegalworking—day，theFrenchworkingpeoplecriedoutwithonevoice\"thelawthatlimitstheworking—dayto12hoursistheonegoodthathasremainedtousofthelegislationoftheRepublic！\"[96]AtZürichtheworkofchildrenover10，islimitedto12hours;inAargauin1862，theworkofchildrenbetween13and16，wasreducedfrom121/2to12hours;inAustriain1860，forchildrenbetween14and16，thesamereductionwasmade。[97]\"Whataprogress，\"since1770！Macaulaywouldshoutwithexultation！
The\"HouseofTerror\"forpaupersofwhichthecapitalisticsoulof1770onlydreamed，wasrealisedafewyearslaterintheshapeofagigantic\"Workhouse\"fortheindustrialworkerhimself。ItiscalledtheFactory。
Andtheidealthistimefadesbeforethereality。
SECTION6THESTRUGGLEFORTHENORMALWORKING—DAY。
COMPULSORYLIMITATIONBYLAWOFTHEWORKING—TIME。
THEENGLISHFACTORYACTS，1833TO1864
Aftercapitalhadtakencenturiesinextendingtheworking—daytoitsnormalmaximumlimit，andthenbeyondthistothelimitofthenaturaldayof12hours，[98]therefollowedonthebirthofmachinismandmodernindustryinthelastthirdofthe18thcentury，aviolentencroachmentlikethatofanavalancheinitsintensityandextent。Allboundsofmoralsandnature，ageandsex，dayandnight，werebrokendown。Eventheideasofdayandnight，ofrusticsimplicityintheoldstatutes，becamesoconfusedthatanEnglishjudge，aslateas1860，neededaquiteTalmudicsagacitytoexplain\"judicially\"
whatwasdayandwhatwasnight。[99]Capitalcelebrateditsorgies。
Assoonastheworking—class，stunnedatfirstbythenoiseandturmoilofthenewsystemofproduction，recovered，insomemeasure，itssenses，itsresistancebegan，andfirstinthenativelandofmachinism，inEngland。
For30years，however，theconcessionsconqueredbytheworkpeoplewerepurelynominal。Parliamentpassed5labourLawsbetween1802and1833，butwasshrewdenoughnottovoteapennyfortheircarryingout，fortherequisiteofficials，&c。[100]
Theyremainedadeadletter。\"Thefactis，thatpriortotheActof1833，youngpersonsandchildrenwereworkedallnight，allday，orbothadlibitum。\"[101]
Anormalworking—dayformodernindustryonlydatesfromtheFactoryActof1833，whichincludedcotton，wool，flax，andsilkfactories。NothingismorecharacteristicofthespiritofcapitalthanthehistoryoftheEnglishFactoryActsfrom1833to1864。
TheActof1833declarestheordinaryfactoryworking—daytobefromhalf—pastfiveinthemorningtohalf—pasteightintheeveningandwithintheselimits，aperiodof15hours，itislawfultoemployyoungpersons（i。e。，personsbetween13and18yearsofage），atanytimeoftheday，providednooneindividualyoungpersonshouldworkmorethan12hoursinanyoneday，exceptincertaincasesespeciallyprovidedfor。The6thsectionoftheActprovided。\"Thatthereshallbeallowedinthecourseofeverydaynotlessthanoneandahalfhoursformealstoeverysuchpersonrestrictedashereinbeforeprovided。\"Theemploymentofchildrenunder9，withexceptionsmentionedlaterwasforbidden;theworkofchildrenbetween9and13waslimitedto8hoursaday，night—work，i。e。，accordingtothisAct，workbetween8:30p。m。and5:30a。m。，wasforbiddenforallpersonsbetween9and18。
Thelaw—makersweresofarfromwishingtotrenchonthefreedomofcapitaltoexploitadultlabour—power，or，astheycalledit，\"thefreedomoflabour，\"thattheycreatedaspecialsysteminordertopreventtheFactoryActsfromhavingaconsequencesooutrageous。
\"Thegreatevilofthefactorysystemasatpresentconducted，\"saysthefirstreportoftheCentralBoardoftheCommissionofJune28th1833，\"hasappearedtoustobethatitentailsthenecessityofcontinuingthelabourofchildrentotheutmostlengthofthatoftheadults。Theonlyremedyforthisevil，shortofthelimitationofthelabourofadultswhichwould，inouropinion，createanevilgreaterthanthatwhichissoughttoberemedied，appearstobetheplanofworkingdoublesetsofchildren。\"……UnderthenameofSystemofRelays，this\"plan\"wasthereforecarriedout，sothat，e。g。，from5。30a。m。until1。30intheafternoon，onesetofchildrenbetween9and13，andfrom1。30p。m。to8。30intheeveninganothersetwere\"putto，\"&c。
Inordertorewardthemanufacturersforhaving，inthemostbarefacedway，ignoredalltheActsastochildren’slabourpassedduringthelasttwenty—twoyears，thepillwasyetfurthergildedforthem。ParliamentdecreedthatafterMarch1st，1834，nochildunder11，afterMarch1st1835，nochildunder12，andafterMarch1st，1836，nochildunder13wastoworkmorethaneighthoursinafactory。This\"liberalism，\"sofullofconsiderationfor\"capital，\"wasthemorenoteworthyas。Dr。Farre，SirA。Carlisle，SirB。Brodie，SirC。Bell，Mr。Guthrie，&c。，inaword，themostdistinguishedphysiciansandsurgeonsinLondon，haddeclaredintheirevidencebeforetheHouseofCommons，thattherewasdangerindelay。Dr。FarreexpressedhimselfstillmorecoarseIy。
\"Legislationisnecessaryforthepreventionofdeath，inanyforminwhichitcanbeprematurelyinflicted，andcertainlythis（i。e。，thefactorymethod）mustbeviewedasamostcruelmodeofinflictingit。\"
Thatsame\"reformed\"Parliament，whichinitsdelicateconsiderationforthemanufacturers，condemnedchildrenunder13，foryearstocome，to72hoursofworkperweekintheFactoryHell，ontheotherhand，intheEmancipationAct，whichalsoadministeredfreedomdropbydrop，forbadetheplanters，fromtheoutset，toworkanynegroslavemorethan45hoursaweek。
Butinnowiseconciliated，capitalnowbegananoisyagitationthatwentonforseveralyears。Itturnedchieflyontheageofthosewho，underthenameofchildren，werelimitedto8hours’work，andweresubjecttoacertainamountofcompulsoryeducation。Accordingtocapitalisticanthropology，theageofchildhoodendedat10，orattheoutside，at11。ThemorenearlythetimeapproachedforthecomingintofullforceoftheFactoryAct，thefatalyear1836，themorewildlyragedthemobofmanufacturers。Theymanaged，infact，tointimidatethegovernmenttosuchanextentthatin1835itproposedtolowerthelimitoftheageofchildhoodfrom13to12。Inthemeantimethepressurefromwithoutgrewmorethreatening。CouragefailedtheHouseofCommons。Itrefusedtothrowchildrenof13undertheJuggernautCarofcapitalformorethan8hoursaday，andtheActof1833
cameintofulloperation。ItremainedunaltereduntilJune，1844。
Inthetenyearsduringwhichitregulatedfactorywork，firstinpart，andthenentirely，theofficialreportsofthefactoryinspectorsteemwithcomplaintsastotheimpossibilityofputtingtheActintoforce。
Asthelawof1833leftitoptionalwiththelordsofcapitalduringthe15hours，from5。30a。m。to8。30p。m。，tomakeevery\"youngperson，\"and\"everychild\"begin，breakoff，resume，orendhis12or8hoursatanymomenttheyliked，andalsopermittedthemtoassigntodifferentpersons，differenttimesformeals，thesegentlemensoondiscoveredanew\"systemofrelays，\"bywhichthelabour—horseswerenotchangedatfixedstations，butwereconstantlyre—harnessedatchangingstations。Wedonotpauselongeronthebeautyofthissystem，asweshallhavetoreturntoitlater。
Butthismuchisclearatthefirstglance:thatthissystemannulledthewholeFactoryAct，notonlyinthespirit，butintheletter。Howcouldfactoryinspectors，withthiscomplexbookkeepinginrespecttoeachindividualchildoryoungperson，enforcethelegallydeterminedwork—timeandthegrantingofthelegalmealtimes？Inagreatmanyofthefactories，theoldbrutalitiessoonblossomedoutagainunpunished。InaninterviewwiththeHomeSecretary（1844），thefactoryinspectorsdemonstratedtheimpossibilityofanycontrolunderthenewlyinventedrelaysystem。[102]Inthemeantime，however，circumstanceshadgreatlychanged。Thefactoryhands，especiallysince1838，hadmadetheTenHours’Billtheireconomic，astheyhadmadetheChartertheirpolitical，election—cry。Someofthemanufacturers，even，whohadmanagedtheirfactoriesinconformitywiththeActof1833，overwhelmedParliamentwithmemorialsontheimmoralcompetitionoftheirfalsebrethrenwhomgreaterimpudence，ormorefortunatelocalcircumstances，enabledtobreakthelaw。Moreover，howevermuchtheindividualmanufacturermightgivethereintohisoldlustforgain，thespokesmenandpoliticalleadersofthemanufacturingclassorderedachangeoffrontandofspeechtowardstheworkpeople。TheyhadentereduponthecontestfortherepealoftheCornLaws，andneededtheworkerstohelpthemtovictory。Theypromisedtherefore，notonlyadouble—sizedloafofbread，buttheenactmentoftheTenHours’BillintheFree—trademillennium。[103]Thustheystilllessdaredtoopposeameasureintendedonlytomakethelawof1833areality。Threatenedintheirholiestinterest，therentofland，theToriesthunderedwithphilanthropicindignationagainstthe\"nefariouspractices\"[104]oftheirfoes。
ThiswastheoriginoftheadditionalFactoryActofJune7th，1844。
ItcameintoeffectonSeptember10th，1844。Itplacesunderprotectionanewcategoryofworkers，viz。，thewomenover18。Theywereplacedineveryrespectonthesamefootingastheyoungpersons，theirworktimelimitedtotwelvehours，theirnight—labourforbidden，&c。Forthefirsttime，legislationsawitselfcompelledtocontroldirectlyandofficiallythelabourofadults。IntheFactoryReportof1844—1845，itissaidwithirony:\"Noinstanceshavecometomyknowledgeofadultwomenhavingexpressedanyregretattheirrightsbeingthusfarinterferedwith。\"[105]Theworking—timeofchildrenunder13wasreducedto61，andincertaincircumstancesto7hoursa—day。[106]
Togetridoftheabusesofthe\"spuriousrelaysystem，\"thelawestablishedbesidesothersthefollowingimportantregulations:？\"Thatthehoursofworkofchildrenandyoungpersonsshallbereckonedfromthetimewhenanychildoryoungpersonshallbegintoworkinthemorning。\"SothatifA，e。g。，beginsworkat8inthemorning，andBat10，B’swork—daymustneverthelessendatthesamehourasA’s。\"Thetimeshallberegulatedbyapublicclock，\"forexample，thenearestrailwayclock，bywhichthefactoryclockistobeset。Theoccupieristohangupa\"legible\"printednoticestatingthehoursforthebeginningandendingofworkandthetimesallowedfortheseveralmeals。Childrenbeginningworkbefore12noonmaynotbeagainemployedafterIp。m。Theafternoonshiftmustthereforeconsistofotherchildrenthanthoseemployedinthemorning。Ofthehourandahalfformeal—times，\"onehourthereofattheleastshallbegivenbeforethreeoftheclockintheafternoon……andatthesameperiodoftheday。NochildoryoungpersonshallbeemployedmorethanfivehoursbeforeIp。m。withoutanintervalformeal—timeofatleast30minutes。Nochildoryoungperson[orfemale]shallbeemployedorallowedtoremaininanyroominwhichanymanufacturingprocessisthen[i。e。，atmealtimes]carriedon，\"&c。
Ithasbeenseenthattheseminutiae，which，withmilitaryuniformity，regulatebystrokeoftheclockthetimes，limits，pausesoftheworkwerenotatalltheproductsofParliamentaryfancy。Theydevelopedgraduallyoutofcircumstancesasnaturallawsofthemodernmodeofproduction。
Theirformulation，officialrecognition，andproclamationbytheState，weretheresultofalongstruggleofclasses。Oneoftheirfirstconsequenceswasthatinpracticetheworking—dayoftheadultmalesinfactoriesbecamesubjecttothesamelimitations，sinceinmostprocessesofproductiontheco—operationofthechildren。youngpersons，andwomenisindispensable。
Onthewhole，therefore，duringtheperiodfrom1844to1847，the12hours’
working—daybecamegeneralanduniforminallbranchesofindustryundertheFactoryAct。
Themanufacturers，however，didnotallowthis\"progress\"withoutacompensating\"retrogression。\"AttheirinstigationtheHouseofCommonsreducedtheminimumageforexploitablechildrenfrom9to8，inordertoassurethatadditionalsupplyoffactorychildrenwhichisduetocapitalists，accordingtodivineandhumanlaw。[107]
Theyears1846—47areepoch—makingintheeconomichistoryofEngland。
TheRepealoftheCornLaws，andofthedutiesoncottonandotherrawmaterial;Free—tradeproclaimedastheguidingstaroflegislation;inaword，thearrivalofthemillennium。Ontheotherhand，inthesameyears，theChartistmovementandthe10hours’agitationreachedtheirhighestpoint。TheyfoundalliesintheToriespantingforrevenge。
DespitethefanaticaloppositionofthearmyofperjuredFree—traders，withBrightandCobdenattheirhead，theTenHours’Bill，struggledforsolong，wentthroughParliament。
ThenewFactoryActofJune8th，1847，enactedthatonJuly1st，1847，thereshouldbeapreliminaryshorteningoftheworking—dayfor\"youngpersons\"（from13to18），andallfemalesto11hours，butthatonMay1st，1848，thereshouldbeadefinitelimitationoftheworking—dayto10hours。Inotherrespects，theActonlyamendedandcompletedtheActsof1833and1844。
CapitalnowentereduponapreliminarycampaigninordertohindertheActfromcomingintofullforceonMay1st，1848。Andtheworkersthemselves，underthepresencethattheyhadbeentaughtbyexperience，weretohelpinthedestructionoftheirownwork。Themomentwascleverlychosen。\"Itmustberemembered，too，thattherehasbeenmorethantwoyearsofgreatsuffering（inconsequenceoftheterriblecrisisof1846—47）amongthefactoryoperatives，frommanymillshavingworkedshorttime，andmanybeingaltogetherclosed。Aconsiderablenumberoftheoperativesmustthereforebeinverynarrowcircumstancesmany，itistobefeared，indebt;sothatitmightfairlyhavebeenpresumedthatatthepresenttimetheywouldpreferworkingthelongertime，inordertomakeupforpastlosses，perhapstopayoffdebts，orgettheirfurnitureoutofpawn，orreplacethatsold，ortogetanewsupplyofclothesforthemselvesandtheirfamilies。\"[108]
Themanufacturerstriedtoaggravatethenaturaleffectofthesecircumstancesbyageneralreductionofwagesby10%。Thiswasdonesotosay，tocelebratetheinaugurationofthenewFree—tradeera。Thenfollowedafurtherreductionof81/3%assoonastheworking—daywasshortenedto11，andareductionofdoublethatamountassoonasitwasfinallyshortenedto10hours。
Wherever，therefore，circumstancesallowedit，areductionofwagesofatleast25%tookplace。[109]UndersuchfavourablypreparedconditionstheagitationamongthefactoryworkersfortherepealoftheActof1847wasbegun。Neitherlies，bribery，northreatsweresparedinthisattempt。Butallwasinvain。Concerningthehalf—dozenpetitionsinwhichworkpeopleweremadetocomplainof\"theiroppressionbytheAct，\"thepetitionersthemselvesdeclaredunderoralexamination，thattheirsignatureshadbeenextortedfromthem。\"Theyfeltthemselvesoppressed，butnotexactlybytheFactoryAct。’’[110]Butifthemanufacturersdidnotsucceedinmakingtheworkpeoplespeakastheywished，theythemselvesshriekedallthelouderinpressandParliamentinthenameoftheworkpeople。TheydenouncedtheFactoryInspectorsasakindofrevolutionarycommissionerslikethoseoftheFrenchNationalConventionruthlesslysacrificingtheunhappyfactoryworkerstotheirhumanitariancrotchet。Thismaneuvrealsofailed。FactoryInspectorLeonardHomerconductedinhisownperson，andthroughhissub—inspectors，manyexaminationsofwitnessesinthefactoriesofLancashire。About70%
oftheworkpeopleexamineddeclaredinfavourof10hours，amuchsmallerpercentageinfavourof11，andanaltogetherinsignificantminorityfortheold12hours。[111]
Another\"friendly\"dodgewastomaketheadultmaleswork12to15hours，andthentoblazonabroadthisfactasthebestproofofwhattheproletariatdesiredinitsheartofhearts。Butthe\"ruthless\"FactoryInspectorLeonardHomerwasagaintothefore。Themajorityofthe\"over—times\"declared:
\"Theywouldmuchpreferworkingtenhoursforlesswages，butthattheyhadnochoice;thatsomanywereoutofemployment（somanyspinnersgettingverylowwagesbyhavingtoworkaspiecers，beingunabletodobetter），thatiftheyrefusedtoworkthelongertime，otherswouldimmediatelygettheirplaces，sothatitwasaquestionwiththemofagreeingtoworkthelongertime，orofbeingthrownoutofemploymentaltogether。\"[112]
Thepreliminarycampaignofcapitalthuscametogrief，andtheTenHours’ActcameintoforceMay1st，1848。ButmeanwhilethefiascooftheChartistpartywhoseleaderswereimprisoned，andwhoseorganisationwasdismembered，hadshakentheconfidenceoftheEnglishworking—classinitsownstrength。SoonafterthistheJuneinsurrectioninParisanditsbloodysuppressionunited，inEnglandasontheContinent，allfractionsoftherulingclasses，landlordsandcapitalists，stock—exchangewolvesandshop—keepers，ProtectionistsandFreetraders，governmentandopposition，priestsandfreethinkers，youngwhoresandoldnuns，underthecommoncryforthesalvationofProperty，Religion，theFamilyandSociety。Theworking—classwaseverywhereproclaimed，placedunderaban，underavirtuallawofsuspects。Themanufacturershadnoneedanylongertorestrainthemselves。TheybrokeoutinopenrevoltnotonlyagainsttheTenHours’Act，butagainstthewholeofthelegislationthatsince1833hadaimedatrestrictinginsomemeasurethe\"free\"exploitationoflabour—power。Itwasapro—slaveryrebellioninminiature，carriedonforovertwoyearswithacynicalrecklessness，aterroristenergyallthecheaperbecausetherebelcapitalistriskednothingexcepttheskinofhis\"hands。\"
TounderstandthatwhichfollowswemustrememberthattheFactoryActsof1833，1844，and1847wereallthreeinforcesofarastheonedidnotamendtheother:thatnotoneoftheselimitedtheworking—dayofthemaleworkerover18，andthatsince1833the15hoursfrom5。30a。m。to8。30
p。m。hadremainedthelegal\"day，\"withinthelimitsofwhichatfirstthe12，andlaterthe10hours’labourofyoungpersonsandwomenhadtobeperformedundertheprescribedconditions。
Themanufacturersbeganbyhereandtheredischargingapartof，inmanycaseshalfoftheyoungpersonsandwomenemployedbythem，andthen，fortheadultmales，restoringthealmostobsoletenight—work。TheTenHours’Act，theycried，leavesnootheralternative。[113]
Theirsecondstepdealtwiththelegalpausesformeals。LetusheartheFactoryInspectors。\"Sincetherestrictionofthehoursofworktoten，thefactoryoccupiersmaintain，althoughtheyhavenotyetpracticallygonethewholelength，thatsupposingthehoursofworktobefrom9a。m。
to7p。m。theyfulfiltheprovisionsofthestatutesbyallowinganhourbefore9a。m。andhalfanhourafter7p。m。[formeals]。Insomecasestheynowallowanhour，orhalfanhourfordinner，insistingatthesametime，thattheyarenotboundtoallowanypartofthehourandahalfinthecourseofthefactoryworking—day。\"[114]ThemanufacturersmaintainedthereforethatthescrupulouslystrictprovisionsoftheActof1844withregardtomeal—timesonlygavetheoperativespermissiontoeatanddrinkbeforecominginto，andafterleavingthefactory？i。e。，athome。Andwhyshouldnottheworkpeopleeattheirdinnerbefore9inthemorning？Thecrownlawyers，however，decidedthattheprescribedmeal—times\"mustbeintheintervalduringtheworking—hours，andthatitwillnotbelawfultoworkfor10hourscontinuously，from9a。m。to7p。m。，withoutanyinterval。;[115]
Afterthesepleasantdemonstrations，Capitalpreludeditsrevoltbyastepwhichagreedwiththeletterofthelawof1844，andwasthereforelegal。
TheActof1844certainlyprohibitedtheemploymentafter1p。m。ofsuchchildren，from8to13，ashadbeenemployedbeforenoon。Butitdidnotregulateinanywaythe61/2hours’workofthechildrenwhosework—timebeganat12middayorlater。Childrenof8might，iftheybeganworkatnoon，beemployedfrom12to1，1hour;from2to4intheafternoon，2
hours;from5to8。30intheevening，31/2hours;inall，thelegal6
1/2hours。Orbetterstill。Inordertomaketheirworkcoincidewiththatoftheadultmalelabourersupto8。30p。m。，themanufacturersonlyhadtogivethemnoworktill2intheafternoon，theycouldthenkeeptheminthefactorywithoutintermissiontill8。30intheevening。\"AnditisnowexpresslyadmittedthatthepracticeexistsinEnglandfromthedesireofmill—ownerstohavetheirmachineryatworkformorethan10hoursa—day，tokeepthechildrenatworkwithmaleadultsafteralltheyoungpersonsandwomenhaveleft，anduntil8。30p。m。ifthefactory—ownerschoose。’’[116]Workmenandfactoryinspectorsprotestedonhygienicandmoralgrounds，butCapitalanswered:
\"Mydeedsuponmyhead！Icravethelaw，Thepenaltyandforfeitofmybond。\"
Infact，accordingtostatisticslaidbeforetheHouseofCommonsonJuly26th，1850，inspiteofallprotests，onJuly15th，1850，3，742childrenweresubjectedtothis\"practice\"in257factories。[117]Still，thiswasnotenough。TheLynxeyeofCapitaldiscoveredthattheActof1844didnotallow5hours’workbeforemid—daywithoutapauseofatleast30minutesforrefreshment，butprescribednothingofthekindforworkaftermid—day。Therefore，itclaimedandobtainedtheenjoymentnotonlyofmakingchildrenof8drudgewithoutintermissionfrom2to8。30p。m。，butalsoofmakingthemhungerduringthattime。
\"Ay，hisheart。
Sosaysthebond。\"
ThisShylock—clinging[118]totheletterofthelawof1844，sofarasitregulatedchildren’slabour，wasbuttoleaduptoanopenrevoltagainstthesamelaw，sofarasitregulatedthelabourof\"youngpersonsandwomen。\"Itwillberememberedthattheabolitionofthe\"falserelaysystem\"wasthechiefaimandobjectofthatlaw。ThemastersbegantheirrevoltwiththesimpledeclarationthatthesectionsoftheActof1844whichprohibitedtheadlibitumuseofyoungpersonsandwomeninsuchshortfractionsofthedayof15
hoursastheemployerchose，were\"comparativelyharmless\"solongasthework—timewasfixedat12hours。ButundertheTenHours’Acttheywerea\"grievoushardship。\"[119]Theyinformedtheinspectorsinthecoolestmannerthattheyshouldplacethemselvesabovetheletterofthelaw，andre—introducetheoldsystemontheirownaccount。[120]Theywereactingintheinterestsoftheill—advisedoperativesthemselves，\"inordertobeabletopaythemhigherwages。\"\"Thiswastheonlypossibleplanbywhichtomaintain，undertheTenHours’Act，theindustrialsupremacyofGreatBritain。\"\"Perhapsitmaybealittledifficulttodetectirregularitiesundertherelaysystem;butwhatofthat？IsthegreatmanufacturinginterestofthiscountrytobetreatedasasecondarymatterinordertosavesomelittletroubletoInspectorsandSub—InspectorsofFactories？\"[121]