TheCommitteeoftheEnglishGovernment，whichGovernment，inIreland，isarmedtotheteeth，andgenerallyknowshowtoshowit，remonstratesinmild，thoughfunereal，toneswiththeimplacablemasterbakersofDublin，Limerick，Cork，&c。:\"TheCommitteebelievethatthehoursoflabourarelimitedbynaturallaws，whichcannotbeviolatedwithimpunity。Thatformasterbakerstoinducetheirworkmen，bythefearoflosingemployment，toviolatetheirreligiousconvictionsandtheirbetterfeelings，todisobeythelawsoftheland，andtodisregardpublicopinion（thisallreferstoSundaylabour），iscalculatedtoprovokeill—feelingbetweenworkmenandmasters，……andaffordsanexampledangeroustoreligion，morality，andsocialorder……TheCommitteebelievethatanyconstantworkbeyond12hoursa—dayencroachesonthedomesticandprivatelifeoftheworking—man，andsoleadstodisastrousmoralresults，interferingwitheachman’shome，andthedischargeofhisfamilydutiesasason，abrother，ahusband，afather。Thatworkbeyond12hourshasatendencytounderminethehealthoftheworkingman，andsoleadstoprematureoldageanddeath，tothegreatinjuryoffamiliesofworking—men，thusdeprivedofthecareandsupportoftheheadofthefamilywhenmostrequired。\"[53]
Sofar，wehavedealtwithIreland。Ontheothersideofthechannel，inScotland，theagriculturallabourer，theploughman，protestsagainsthis13—14hours’workinthemostinclementclimate，with4hours’additionalworkonSunday（inthislandofSabbatarians！），[54]whilst，atthesametime，threerailwaymenarestandingbeforeaLondoncoroner’sjury？aguard，anengine—driver，asignalman。Atremendousrailwayaccidenthashurriedhundredsofpassengersintoanotherworld。Thenegligenceoftheemployeeisthecauseofthemisfortune。Theydeclarewithonevoicebeforethejurythattenortwelveyearsbefore，theirlabouronlylastedeighthoursa—day;Duringthelastfiveorsixyearsithadbeenscrewedupto14，18，and20hours，andunderaspeciallyseverepressureofholiday—makers，attimesofexcursiontrains，itoftenlastedfor40or50hourswithoutabreak。Theywereordinarymen，notCyclops。
Atacertainpointtheirlabour—powerfailed。Torporseizedthem。Theirbrainceasedtothink，theireyestosee。Thethoroughly\"respectable\"
Britishjurymenansweredbyaverdictthatsentthemtothenextassizesonachargeofmanslaughter，and，inagentle\"rider\"totheirverdict，expressedthepioushopethatthecapitalisticmagnatesoftherailwayswould，infuture，bemoreextravagantinthepurchaseofasufficientquantityoflabour—power，andmore\"abstemious\"，more\"self—denying，’more\"thrifty，\"
inthedrainingofpaidlabour—power。[55]
Fromthemotleycrowdoflabourersofallcallings，ages，sexes，thatpressonusmorebusilythanthesoulsoftheslainonUlysses，onwhom？withoutreferringtotheBluebooksundertheirarms？weseeataglancethemarkofover—work，letustaketwomorefigureswhosestrikingcontrastprovesthatbeforecapitalallmenarealike？
amillinerandablacksmisp;
InthelastweekofJune，1863，alltheLondondailypaperspublishedaparagraphwiththe\"sensational\"heading，\"Deathfromsimpleover—work。\"
Itdealtwiththedeathofthemilliner，MaryAnneWalkley，20yearsofage，employedinahighly—respectabledressmakingestablishment，exploitedbyaladywiththepleasantnameofElise。Theold，often—toldstory，[56]wasoncemorerecounted。Thisgirlworked，onanaverage，161/2hours，duringtheseasonoften30hours，withoutabreak，whilstherfailinglabour—powerwasrevivedbyoccasionalsuppliesofsherry，port，orcoffee。Itwasjustnowtheheightoftheseason。Itwasnecessarytoconjureupinthetwinklingofaneyethegorgeousdressesforthenobleladiesbiddentotheballinhonourofthenewly—importedPrincessofWales。MaryAnneWalkleyhadworkedwithoutintermissionfor261/2hours，with60othergirls，30inoneroom，thatonlyafforded3ofthecubicfeetofairrequiredforthem。Atnight，theysleptinpairsinoneofthestiflingholesintowhichthebedroomwasdividedbypartitionsofboard。[57]AndthiswasoneofthebestmillineryestablishmentsinLondon。MaryAnneWalkleyfellillontheFriday，diedonSunday，without，totheastonishmentofMadameElise，havingpreviouslycompletedtheworkinhand。Thedoctor，Mr。Keys，calledtoolatetothedeath—bed，dulyborewitnessbeforethecoroner’sjurythat\"MaryAnneWalkleyhaddiedfromlonghoursofworkinanover—crowdedwork—room，andatoosmallandbadlyventilatedbedroom。\"Inordertogivethedoctoralessoningoodmanners，thecoroner’sjurythereuponbroughtinaverdictthat\"thedeceasedhaddiedofapoplexy，buttherewasreasontofearthatherdeathhadbeenacceleratedbyover—workinanover—crowdedworkroom，&c。\"\"Ourwhiteslaves，\"criedtheMorningStar，theorganoftheFree—traders，CobdenandBright，\"ourwhiteslaves，whoaretoiledintothegrave，forthemostpartsilentlypineanddie。\"[58]
\"Itisnotindressmakers’roomsthatworkingtodeathistheorderoftheday，butinathousandotherplaces;ineveryplaceIhadalmostsaid，where’athrivingbusiness’hastobedone……Wewilltaketheblacksmithasatype。Ifthepoetsweretrue，thereisnomansohearty，somerry，astheblacksmith;herisesearlyandstrikeshissparksbeforethesun;
heeatsanddrinksandsleepsasnootherman。Workinginmoderation，heis，infact，inoneofthebestofhumanpositions，physicallyspeaking。Butwefollowhimintothecityortown，andweseethestressofworkonthatstrongman，andwhatthenishispositioninthedeath—rateofhiscountry。InMarylebone，blacksmithsdieattherateof31perthousandperannum，or11abovethemeanofthemaleadultsofthecountryinitsentirety。Theoccupation，instinctivealmostasaportionofhumanart，unobjectionableasabranchofhumanindustry，ismadebymereexcessofwork，thedestroyeroftheman。Hecanstrikesomanyblowsperday，walksomanysteps，breathesomanybreaths，producesomuchwork，andliveanaverage，sayoffiftyyears;heismadetostrikesomanymoreblows，towalksomanymoresteps，tobreathesomanymorebreathsperday，andtoincreasealtogetherafourthofhislife。Hemeetstheeffort;
theresultis，thatproducingforalimitedtimeafourthmorework，hediesat37for50。\"[59]
SECTION4DAYANDNIGHTWORK。THERELAYSYSTEM。
Constantcapital，themeansofproduction，consideredfromthestandpointofthecreationofsurplus—value，onlyexisttoabsorblabour，andwitheverydropoflabouraproportionalquantityofsurplus—labour。Whiletheyfailtodothis，theirmereexistencecausesarelativelosstothecapitalist，fortheyrepresentduringthetimetheyliefallow，auselessadvanceofcapital。Andthislossbecomespositiveandabsoluteassoonastheintermissionoftheiremploymentnecessitatesadditionaloutlayattherecommencementofwork。Theprolongationoftheworking—daybeyondthelimitsofthenaturalday，intothenight，onlyactsasapalliative。Itquenchesonlyinaslightdegreethevampirethirstforthelivingbloodoflabour。Toappropriatelabourduringallthe24hoursofthedayis，therefore，theinherenttendencyofcapitalistproduction。Butasitisphysicallyimpossibletoexploitthesameindividuallabour—powerconstantlyduringthenightaswellastheday，toovercomethisphysicalhindrance，analternationbecomesnecessarybetweentheworkpeoplewhosepowersareexhaustedbyday，andthosewhoareusedupbynight。Thisalternationmaybeeffectedinvariousways;
e。g。，itmaybesoarrangedthatpartoftheworkersareoneweekemployedonday—work，thenextweekonnight—work。Itiswellknownthatthisrelaysystem，thisalternationoftwosetsofworkers，heldfullswayinthefull—bloodedyouth—timeoftheEnglishcottonmanufacture，andthatatthepresenttimeitstillflourishes，amongothers，inthecottonspinningoftheMoscowdistrict。This24hours’processofproductionexiststo—dayasasysteminmanyofthebranchesofindustryofGreatBritainthatarestill\"free，\"intheblast—furnaces，forges，plate—rollingmills，andothermetallurgicalestablishmentsinEngland，Wales，andScotland。Theworking—timehereincludes，besidesthe24hoursofthe6working—days，agreatpartalsoofthe24hoursofSunday。Theworkersconsistofmenandwomen，adultsandchildrenofbothsexes。Theagesofthechildrenandyoungpersonsrunthroughallintermediategrades，from8（insomecasesfrom6）to18。[60]
Insomebranchesofindustry，thegirlsandwomenworkthroughthenighttogetherwiththemales。[61]
Placingononesidethegenerallyinjuriousinfluenceofnight—labour，[62]thedurationoftheprocessofproduction，unbrokenduringthe24hours，offersverywelcomeopportunitiesofexceedingthelimitsofthenormalworking—day，e。g。，inthebranchesofindustryalreadymentioned，whichareofanexceedinglyfatiguingnature;theofficialworking—daymeansforeachworkerusually12hoursbynightorday。Buttheover—workbeyondthisamountisinmanycases，tousethewordsoftheEnglishofficialreport，\"trulyfearful。\"[63]
\"Itisimpossible，\"thereportcontinues，\"foranymindtorealisetheamountofworkdescribedinthefollowingpassagesasbeingperformedbyboysoffrom9to12yearsofage……withoutcomingirresistiblytotheconclusionthatsuchabusesofthepowerofparentsandofemployerscannolongerbeallowedtoexist。\"[64]
\"Thepracticeofboysworkingatallbydayandnightturnseitherintheusualcourseofthings，oratpressingtimes，seemsinevitablytoopenthedoortotheirnotunfrequentlyworkingundulylonghours。Thesehoursare，indeed，insomecases，notonlycruellybutevenincrediblylongforchildren。Amongstanumberofboysitwill，ofcourse，notunfrequentlyhappenthatoneormorearefromsomecauseabsent。Whenthishappens，theirplaceismadeupbyoneormoreboys，whoworkintheotherturn。Thatthisisawellunderstoodsystemisplain……fromtheanswerofthemanagerofsomelargerolling—mills，who，whenIaskedhimhowtheplaceoftheboysabsentfromtheirturnwasmadeup，’Idaresay，sir，youknowthataswellasIdo，’andadmittedthefact。\"[65]
\"Atarolling—millwheretheproperhourswerefrom6a。m。to51/2
p。m。，aboyworkedaboutfournightseveryweektill81/2p。m。atleast……andthisforsixmonths。Another，at9yearsold，sometimesmadethree12—hourshiftsrunning，and，when10，hasmadetwodaysandtwonightsrunning。\"Athird，\"now10……workedfrom6a。m。till12p。m。threenights，andtill9p。m。theothernights。\"\"Another，now13，……workedfrom6
p。m。till12noonnextday，foraweektogether，andsometimesforthreeshiftstogether，e。g。，fromMondaymorningtillTuesdaynight。\"\"Another，now12，hasworkedinanironfoundryatStavelyfrom6a。m。till12p。m。
forafortnightonend;couldnotdoitanymore。\"\"GeorgeAllinsworth，age9，camehereascellar—boylastFriday;nextmorningwehadtobeginat3，soIstoppedhereallnight。Livefivemilesoff。Sleptonthefloorofthefurnace，overhead，withanapronunderme，andabitofajacketoverme。ThetwootherdaysIhavebeenhereat6a。m。Aye！itishotinhere。BeforeIcamehereIwasnearlyayearatthesameworkatsomeworksinthecountry。Beganthere，too，at3onSaturdaymorning？
alwaysdid，butwasverygain[near]home，andcouldsleepathome。OtherdaysIbeganat6inthemorning，andgi’enoverat6or7intheevening，\"
&c;[66]
Letusnowhearhowcapitalitselfregardsthis24
hours’system。Theextremeformsofthesystem，itsabuseinthe\"cruelandincredible\"extensionoftheworking—dayarenaturallypassedoverinsilence。Capitalonlyspeaksofthesysteminits\"normal\"form。
Messrs。Naylor&Vickers，steelmanufacturers，whoemploybetween600and700persons，amongwhomonly10percentareunder18，andofthose，only20boysunder18workinnightsets，thusexpressthemselves:\"Theboysdonotsufferfromtheheat。Thetemperatureisprobablyfrom86°
to90°……Attheforgesandintherollingmillsthehandsworknightandday，inrelays，butalltheotherpartsoftheworkareday—work，i。e。，from6a。m。to6p。m。Intheforgethehoursarefrom12to12。Someofthehandsalwaysworkinthenight，withoutanyalternationofdayandnightwork……Wedonotfindanydifferenceinthehealthofthosewhoworkregularlybynightandthosewhoworkbyday，andprobablypeoplecansleepbetteriftheyhavethesameperiodofrestthanifitischanged……
About20oftheboysundertheageof18workinthenightsets……Wecouldnotwelldowithoutladsunder18workingbynight。Theobjectionwouldbetheincreaseinthecostofproduction……Skilledhandsandtheheadsineverydepartmentaredifficulttoget，butofladswecouldgetanynumber……Butfromthesmallproportionofboysthatweemploy，thesubject（i。e。，ofrestrictionsonnight—work）isoflittleimportanceorinteresttous。\"[67]
Mr。J。Ellis，oneofthefirmofMessrs。JohnBrown&Co。，steelandironworks，employingabout3，000menandboys，partofwhoseoperations，namely，ironandheaviersteelwork，goesonnightanddaybyrelays，states\"thatintheheaviersteelworkoneortwoboysareemployedtoascoreortwomen。\"Theirconcernemploysupwardsof500boysunder18，ofwhomabout1/3or170areundertheageof13。Withreferencetotheproposedalterationofthelaw，Mr。Ellissays:\"Idonotthinkitwouldbeveryobjectionabletorequirethatnopersonundertheageof18shouldworkmorethan12hoursinthe24。Butwedonotthinkthatanylinecouldbedrawnovertheageof12，atwhichboyscouldbedispensedwithfornight—work。Butwewouldsoonerbepreventedfromemployingboysundertheageof13，orevensohighas14，atall，thannotbeallowedtoemployboysthatwedohaveatnight。Thoseboyswhoworkinthedaysetsmusttaketheirturninthenightsetsalso。becausethemencouldnotworkinthenightsetsonly;itwouldruintheirhealth……Wethink，however，thatnight—workinalternateweeksisnoharm。（Messrs。Naylor&Vickers，ontheotherhand，inconformitywiththeinterestoftheirbusiness，consideredthatperiodicallychangednight—labourmightpossiblydomoreharmthancontinualnight—labour。）Wefindthemenwhodoit，aswellastheotherswhodootherworkonlybyday……Ourobjectionstonotallowingboysunder18toworkatnight，wouldbeonaccountoftheincreaseofexpense，butthisistheonlyreason。（Whatcynicalnaïveté！）
Wethinkthattheincreasewouldbemorethanthetrade，withdueregardtoitsbeingsuccessfullycarriedout，couldfairlybear。（Whatmealy—mouthedphraseology！）labourisscarcehere，andmightfallshortifthereweresucharegulation。\"（i。e。，EllisBrown&Co。mightfallintothefatalperplexityofbeingobligedtopaylabour—poweritsfullvalue。）[68]
The\"CyclopsSteelandIronWorks，\"ofMessrs。Cammell&Co。，areconcoctedonthesamelargescaleasthoseoftheabove—mentionedJohnBrown&Co。ThemanagingdirectorhadhandedinhisevidencetotheGovernmentCommissioner，Mr。White，inwriting。LaterhefounditconvenienttosuppresstheMS。whenithadbeenreturnedtohimforrevision。Mr。
White，however，hasagoodmemory。HerememberedquiteclearlythatfortheMessrs。Cyclopstheforbiddingofthenight—labourofchildrenandyoungpersons\"wouldbeimpossible，itwouldbetantamounttostoppingtheirworks，\"andyettheirbusinessemployslittlemorethan6%ofboysunder18，andlessthan1%under13。[69]
OnthesamesubjectMr。E。F。Sanderson，ofthefirmofSanderson，Bros。，&Co。，steelrolling—millsandforges，Attercliffe，says:\"Greatdifficultywouldbecausedbypreventingboysunder18fromworkingatnight。Thechiefwouldbetheincreaseofcostfromemployingmeninsteadofboys。
Icannotsaywhatthiswouldbe，butprobablyitwouldnotbeenoughtoenablethemanufacturerstoraisethepriceofsteel，andconsequentlyitwouldfallonthem，asofcoursethemen（whatqueer—headedfolk！）wouldrefusetopayit。\"Mr。Sandersondoesnotknowhowmuchhepaysthechildren，but\"perhapstheyoungerboysgetfrom4s。toSs。aweek……Theboys’
workisofakindforwhichthestrengthoftheboysisgenerally（’generally，’
ofcoursenotalways）quitesufficient，andconsequentlytherewouldbenogaininthegreaterstrengthofthementocounterbalancetheloss，oritwouldbeonlyinthefewcasesinwhichthemetalisheavy。Themenwouldnotlikesowellnottohaveboysunderthem，asmenwouldbelessobedient。Besides，boysmustbeginyoungtolearnthetrade。Leavingday—workaloneopentoboyswouldnotanswerthispurpose。\"Andwhynot？Whycouldnotboyslearntheirhandicraftintheday—time？Yourreason？\"Owingtothemenworkingdaysandnightsinalternateweeks，themenwouldbeseparatedhalfthetimefromtheirboys，andwouldlosehalftheprofitwhichtheymakefromthem。Thetrainingwhichtheygiveto。
anapprenticeisconsideredaspartofthereturnfortheboys’labour，andthusenablesthemantogetitatacheaperrate。Eachmanwouldwanthalfofthisprofit。\"Inotherwords，Messrs。Sandersonwouldhavetopaypartofthewagesoftheadultmenoutoftheirownpocketsinsteadofbythenight—workoftheboys。Messrs。Sanderson’sprofitwouldthusfalltosomeextent，andthisisthegoodSandersonianreasonwhyboyscannotlearntheirhandicraftintheday。[70]Inadditiontothis，itwouldthrownight—labouronthosewhoworkedinsteadoftheboys，whichtheywouldnotbeabletostand。Thedifficultiesinfactwouldbesogreatthattheywouldverylikelyleadtothegivingupofnight—workaltogether，and\"asfarastheworkitselfisconcerned，\"
saysE。F。Sanderson，\"thiswouldsuitaswell，but？\"ButMessrs。Sandersonhavesomethingelsetomakebesidessteel。Steel—makingissimplyapretextforsurplus—valuemaking。Thesmeltingfurnaces，rolling—mills，&c。，thebuildings，machinery，iron，coal，&c。，havesomethingmoretodothantransformthemselvesintosteel。Theyaretheretoabsorbsurplus—labour，andnaturallyabsorbmorein24hour;thanin12。
Infacttheygive，bygraceofGodandlaw，theSandersonsachequeontheworking—timeofacertainnumberofhandsforallthe24hoursoftheday，andtheylosetheircharacterascapital，arethereforeapurelossfortheSandersons，assoonastheirfunctionofabsorbinglabourisinterrupted。\"Butthentherewouldbethelossfromsomuchexpensivemachinery，Iyingidlehalfthetime，andtogetthroughtheamountofworkwhichweareabletodoonthepresentsystem，weshouldhavetodoubleourpremisesandplant，whichwoulddoubletheoutlay。\"ButwhyshouldtheseSandersonspretendtoaprivilegenotenjoyedbytheothercapitalistswhoonlyworkduringtheday，andwhosebuildings，machinery，rawmaterial，thereforelie\"idle\"duringthenight？E。F。SandersonanswersinthenameofalltheSandersons:\"ItistruethatthereisthislossfrommachineryIyingidleinthosemanufactoriesinwhichworkonlygoesonbyday。Buttheuseoffurnaceswouldinvolveafurtherlossinourcase。Iftheywerekeptuptherewouldbeawasteoffuel（insteadof，asnow，awasteofthelivingsubstanceoftheworkers），andiftheywerenot，therewouldbelossoftimeinlayingthefiresandgettingtheheatup（whilstthelossofsleepingtime，eventochildrenof8isagainofworking—timefortheSandersontribe），andthefurnacesthemselveswouldsufferfromthechangesoftemperature。\"（Whilstthosesamefurnacessuffernothingfromthedayandnightchangeoflabour。）[71]
SECTION5THESTRUGGLEFORANORMALWORKING—DAY。
COMPULSORYLAWSFORTHEEXTENSIONOFTHEWORKING—DAYFROMTHEMIDDLEOF
THE14THTOTHEENDOFTHE17THCENTURY
\"Whatisaworking—day？Whatisthelengthoftimeduringwhichcapitalmayconsumethelabour—powerwhosedailyvalueitbuys？Howfarmaytheworking—daybeextendedbeyondtheworking—timenecessaryforthereproductionoflabour—poweritself？\"Ithasbeenseenthattothesequestionscapitalreplies:theworking—daycontainsthefull24hours，withthedeductionofthefewhoursofreposewithoutwhichlabour—powerabsolutelyrefusesitsservicesagain。Henceitisself—evidentthatthelabourerisnothingelse，hiswholelifethrough，thanlabour—power，thatthereforeallhisdisposabletimeisbynatureandlawlabour—time，tobedevotedtotheself—expansionofcapital。Timeforeducation，forintellectualdevelopment，forthefulfillingofsocialfunctionsandforsocialintercourse，forthefree—playofhisbodilyandmentalactivity，eventheresttimeofSunday（andthatinacountryofSabbatarians！）[72]？moonshine！Butinitsblindunrestrainablepassion，itswere—wolfhungerforsurplus—labour，capitaloverstepsnotonlythemoral，buteventhemerelyphysicalmaximumboundsoftheworking—day。Itusurpsthetimeforgrowth，development，andhealthymaintenanceofthebody。Itstealsthetimerequiredfortheconsumptionoffreshairandsunlight。Ithigglesoverameal—time，incorporatingitwherepossiblewiththeprocessofproductionitself，sothatfoodisgiventothelabourerastoameremeansofproduction，ascoalissuppliedtotheboiler，greaseandoiltothemachinery。Itreducesthesoundsleepneededfortherestoration，reparation，refreshmentofthebodilypowerstojustsomanyhoursoftorporastherevivalofanorganism，absolutelyexhausted，rendersessential。Itisnotthenormalmaintenanceofthelabour—powerwhichistodeterminethelimitsoftheworking—day;itisthegreatestpossibledailyexpenditureoflabour—power，nomatterhowdiseased，compulsory，andpainfulitmaybe，whichistodeterminethelimitsofthelabourers’periodofrepose。Capitalcaresnothingforthelengthoflifeoflabour—power。Allthatconcernsitissimplyandsolelythemaximumoflabour—power，thatcanberenderedfluentinaworking—day。Itattainsthisendbyshorteningtheextentofthelabourer’slife，asagreedyfarmersnatchesincreasedproducefromthesoilbyrobbingitofitsfertility。
Thecapitalisticmodeofproduction（essentiallytheproductionofsurplus—value，theabsorptionofsurplus—labour），producesthus，withtheextensionoftheworking—day，notonlythedeteriorationofhumanlabour—powerbyrobbingitofitsnormal，moralandphysical，conditionsofdevelopmentandfunction。
Itproducesalsotheprematureexhaustionanddeathofthislabour—poweritself。[73]Itextendsthelabourer’stimeofproductionduringagivenperiodbyshorteninghisactuallife—time。
Butthevalueofthelabour—powerincludesthevalueofthecommoditiesnecessaryforthereproductionoftheworker，orforthekeepingupoftheworking—class。Ifthentheunnaturalextensionoftheworking—day，thatcapitalnecessarilystrivesafterinitsunmeasuredpassionforself—expansion，shortensthelengthoflifeoftheindividuallabourer，andthereforethedurationofhislabour—power，theforcesuseduphavetobereplacedatamorerapidrateandthesumoftheexpensesforthereproductionoflabour—powerwillbegreater;justasinamachinethepartofitsvaluetobereproducedeverydayisgreaterthemorerapidlythemachineiswornout。Itwouldseemthereforethattheinterestcapitalitselfpointsinthedirectionofanormalworking—day。
Theslave—ownerbuyshislabourerashebuyshishorse。Ifheloseshisslave，helosescapitalthatcanonlyberestoredbynewoutlayintheslave—mart。But\"therice—groundsofGeorgia，ortheswampsoftheMississippimaybefatallyinjurioustothehumanconstitution;butthewasteofhumanlifewhichthecultivationofthesedistrictsnecessitates，isnotsogreatthatitcannotberepairedfromtheteemingpreservesofVirginiaandKentucky。Considerationsofeconomy，moreover，which，underanaturalsystem，affordsomesecurityforhumanetreatmentbyidentifyingthemaster’sinterestwiththeslave’spreservation，whenoncetradinginslavesispracticed，becomereasonsforrackingtotheuttermostthetoiloftheslave;for，whenhisplacecanatoncebesuppliedfromforeignpreserves，thedurationofhislifebecomesamatteroflessmomentthanitsproductivenesswhileitlasts。Itisaccordinglyamaximofslavemanagement，inslave—importingcountries，thatthemosteffectiveeconomyisthatwhichtakesoutofthehumanchattelintheshortestspaceoftimetheutmostamountofexertionitiscapableofputtingforth。
Itisintropicalculture，whereannualprofitsoftenequalthewholecapitalofplantations，thatnegrolifeismostrecklesslysacrificed。ItistheagricultureoftheWestIndies，whichhasbeenforcenturiesprolificoffabulouswealth，thathasengulfedmillionsoftheAfricanrace。ItisinCuba，atthisday，whoserevenuesarereckonedbymillions，andwhoseplantersareprinces，thatweseeintheservileclass，thecoarsestfare，themostexhaustingandunremittingtoil，andeventheabsolutedestructionofaportionofitsnumberseveryyear。\"[74]
Mutatonominedetefabulanarratur。Forslave—tradereadlabour—market，forKentuckyandVirginia，IrelandandtheagriculturaldistrictsofEngland，Scotland，andWales，forAfrica，Germany。Weheardhowover—workthinnedtheranksofthebakersinLondon。Nevertheless，theLondonlabour—marketisalwaysover—stockedwithGermanandothercandidatesfordeathinthebakeries。Pottery，aswesaw，isoneoftheshortest—livedindustries。
Isthereanywantthereforeofpotters？JosiahWedgwood，theinventorofmodernpottery，himselforiginallyacommonworkman，saidin1785beforetheHouseofCommonsthatthewholetradeemployedfrom15，000to20，000
people。[75]Intheyear1861thepopulationaloneofthetowncentresofthisindustryinGreatBritainnumbered101，302。\"Thecottontradehasexistedforninetyyears……
IthasexistedforthreegenerationsoftheEnglishrace，andIbelieveImaysafelysaythatduringthatperiodithasdestroyedninegenerationsoffactoryoperatives。\"[76]
Nodoubtincertainepochsoffeverishactivitythelabour—marketshowssignificantgaps。In1834，e。g。ButthenthemanufacturersproposedtothePoorLawCommissionersthattheyshouldsendthe\"surplus—population\"
oftheagriculturaldistrictstothenorth，withtheexplanation\"thatthemanufacturerswouldabsorbanduseitup。\"[77]AgentswereappointedwiththeconsentofthePoorLawCommissioners……
AnofficewassetupinManchester，towhichlistsweresentofthoseworkpeopleintheagriculturaldistrictswantingemployment，andtheirnameswereregisteredinbooks。Themanufacturersattendedattheseoffices，andselectedsuchpersonsastheychose;whentheyhadselectedsuchpersonsastheir’wantsrequired’，theygaveinstructionstohavethemforwardedtoManchester，andtheyweresent，ticketedlikebalesofgoods，bycanals，orwithcarriers，otherstrampingontheroad，andmanyofthemwerefoundonthewaylostandhalf—starved。Thissystemhadgrownupuntoaregulartrade。ThisHousewillhardlybelieveit，butItellthem，thatthistrafficinhumanfleshwasaswellkeptup，theywereineffectasregularlysoldtothese[Manchester]manufacturersasslavesaresoldtothecotton—growerintheUnitedStates……In1860，’thecottontradewasatitszenith。’……Themanufacturersagainfoundthattheywereshortofhands……Theyappliedtothe’fleshagents，astheyarecalled。ThoseagentssenttothesoutherndownsofEngland，tothepasturesofDorsetshire，tothegladesofDevonshire，tothepeopletendingkineinWiltshire，buttheysoughtinvain。Thesurplus—populationwas’absorbed。’\"TheBuryGuardiansaid，onthecompletionoftheFrenchtreaty，that\"10，000additionalhandscouldbeabsorbedbyLancashire，andthat30，000or40，000willbeneeded。\"Afterthe\"fleshagentsandsub—agents\"hadinvainsoughtthroughtheagriculturaldistricts，\"adeputationcameuptoLondon，andwaitedontherighthon。gentleman[Mr。Villiers，PresidentofthePoorLawBoard]withaviewofobtainingpoorchildrenfromcertainunionhousesforthemillsofLancashire。\"[78]
Whatexperienceshowstothecapitalistgenerallyisaconstantexcessofpopulation，i。e。，anexcessinrelationtothemomentaryrequirementsofsurplus—labour—absorbingcapital，althoughthisexcessismadeupofgenerationsofhumanbeingsstunted，short—lived，swiftlyreplacingeachother，plucked，sotosay，beforematurity。[79]And，indeed，experienceshowstotheintelligentobserverwithwhatswiftnessandgripthecapitalistmodeofproduction，dating，historicallyspeaking，onlyfromyesterday，hasseizedthevitalpowerofthepeoplebytheveryroot？showshowthedegenerationoftheindustrialpopulationisonlyretardedbytheconstantabsorptionofprimitiveandphysicallyuncorruptedelementsfromthecountry？showshoweventhecountrylabourers，inspiteoffreshairandtheprincipleofnaturalselection，thatworkssopowerfullyamongstthem，andonlypermitsthesurvivalofthestrongest，arealreadybeginningtodieofp;[80]Capitalthathassuchgoodreasonsfordenyingthesufferingsofthelegionsofworkersthatsurroundit，isinpracticemovedasmuchandaslittlebythesightofthecomingdegradationandfinaldepopulationofthehumanrace，asbytheprobablefalloftheearthintothesun。Ineverystockjobbingswindleeveryoneknowsthatsometimeorotherthecrashmustcome，buteveryonehopesthatitmayfallontheheadofhisneighbour，afterhehimselfhascaughttheshowerofgoldandplaceditinsafety。Aprèsmoiledéluge！isthewatchwordofeverycapitalistandofeverycapitalistnation。HenceCapitalisrecklessofthehealthorlengthoflifeofthelabourer，unlessundercompulsionfromsociety。[81]Totheout—cryastothephysicalandmentaldegradation，theprematuredeath，thetortureofover—work，itanswers:Oughtthesetotroubleussincetheyincreaseourprofits？Butlookingatthingsasawhole，allthisdoesnot，indeed，dependonthegoodorillwilloftheindividualcapitalist。Freecompetitionbringsouttheinherentlawsofcapitalistproduction，intheshapeofexternalcoercivelawshavingpowerovereveryindividualcapitalist。[82]
Theestablishmentofanormalworking—dayistheresultofcenturiesofstrugglebetweencapitalistandlabourer。Thehistoryofthisstruggleshowstwoopposedtendencies。Compare，e。g。，theEnglishfactorylegislationofourtimewiththeEnglishlabourStatutesfromthe14thcenturytowellintothemiddleofthe18th。[83]WhilstthemodernFactoryActscompulsorilyshortenedtheworking—day，theearlierstatutestriedtolengthenitbycompulsion。
Ofcoursethepretensionsofcapitalinembryo？when，beginningtogrow，itsecurestherightofabsorbingaquantumsufficitofsurplus—labour，notmerelybytheforceofeconomicrelations，butbythehelpoftheState？appearverymodestwhenputfacetofacewiththeconcessionsthat，growlingandstruggling，ithastomakeinitsadultcondition;Ittakescenturieserethe\"free\"labourer，thankstothedevelopmentofcapitalisticproduction，agrees，i。e。，iscompelledbysocialconditions，tosellthewholeofhisactivelife。hisverycapacityforwork，forthepriceofthenecessariesoflife，hisbirth—rightforamessofpottage。
Henceitisnaturalthatthelengtheningoftheworking—day，whichcapital，fromthemiddleofthe14thtotheendofthe17thcentury，triestoimposebyState—measuresonadultlabourers，approximatelycoincideswiththeshorteningoftheworking—daywhich，inthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury，hashereandtherebeeneffectedbytheStatetopreventthecoiningofchildren’sbloodintocapital。Thatwhichto—day，e。g。，intheStateofMassachusetts，untilrecentlythefreestStateoftheNorth—AmericanRepublic，hasbeenproclaimedasthestatutorylimitofthelabourofchildrenunder12，wasinEngland，eveninthemiddleofthe17thcentury，thenormalworking—dayofable—bodiedartisans，robustlabourers，athleticblacksmiths。[84]
Thefirst\"StatuteofLabourers\"（23EdwardIII。，1349）founditsimmediatepretext（notitscause，forlegislationofthiskindlastscenturiesafterthepretextforithasdisappeared）inthegreatplaguethatdecimatedthepeople，sothat，asaTorywritersays，\"Thedifficultyofgettingmentoworkonreasonableterms（i。e。，atapricethatlefttheiremployersareasonablequantityofsurplus—labour）grewtosuchaheightastobequiteintolerable。\"[85]Reasonablewageswere，therefore，fixedbylawaswellasthelimitsoftheworking—day。Thelatterpoint，theonlyonethathereinterestsus，isrepeatedintheStatuteof1496（HenryVII。）。