Supposetheworking—dayconsistsof6hoursofnecessarylabour，and6hoursofsurplus—labour。Thenthefreelabourergivesthecapitalisteveryweek6x6or36hoursofsurplus—labour。Itisthesameasifheworked3daysintheweekforhimself，and3daysintheweekgratisforthecapitalist。Butthisisnotevidentonthesurface。Surplus—labourandnecessarylabourglideoneintotheother。Ican，therefore，expressthesamerelationshipbysaying，e。g。，thatthelabourerineveryminuteworks30secondsforhimself，and30forthecapitalist，etc。Itisotherwisewiththecorvée。ThenecessarylabourwhichtheWallachianpeasantdoesforhisownmaintenanceisdistinctlymarkedofffromhissurplus—labouronbehalfoftheBoyard。Theonehedoesonhisownfield，theotherontheseignorialestate。Bothpartsofthelabour—timeexist，therefore，independently，sidebysideonewiththeother。Inthecorvéethesurplus—labourisaccuratelymarkedofffromthenecessarylabour。This，however，canmakenodifferencewithregardtothequantitativerelationofsurplus—labourtonecessarylabour。Threedays’surplus—labourintheweekremainthreedaysthatyieldnoequivalenttothelabourerhimself，whetheritbecalledcorvéeorwage—labour。Butinthecapitalistthegreedforsurplus—labourappearsinthestrainingafteranunlimitedextensionoftheworking—day，intheBoyardmoresimplyinadirecthuntingafterdaysofcorvée。[10]
IntheDanubianPrincipalitiesthecorvéewasmixedupwithrentsinkindandotherappurtenancesofbondage，butitformedthemostimportanttributepaidtotherulingclass。Wherethiswasthecase，thecorvéerarelyarosefromserfdom;serfdommuchmorefrequentlyontheotherhandtookoriginfromthecorvée。[11]ThisiswhattookplaceintheRoumanianprovinces。
Theiroriginalmodeofproductionwasbasedoncommunityofthesoil，butnotintheSlavonicorIndianform。Partofthelandwascultivatedinseverallyasfreeholdbythemembersofthecommunity，anotherpart？agerpublicus？wascultivatedbythemincommon。Theproductsofthiscommonlabourservedpartlyasareservefundagainstbadharvestsandotheraccidents，partlyasapublicstoreforprovidingthecostsofwar，religion，andothercommonexpenses。Incourseoftimemilitaryandclericaldignitariesusurped，alongwiththecommonland，thelabourspentuponit。Thelabourofthefreepeasantsontheircommonlandwastransformedintocorvéeforthethievesofthecommonland。Thiscorvéesoondevelopedintoaservilerelationshipexistinginpointoffact，notinpointoflaw，untilRussia，theliberatoroftheworld，madeitlegalunderpresenceofabolishingserfdom。Thecodeofthecorvée，whichtheRussianGeneralKisseleffproclaimedin1831，wasofcoursedictatedbytheBoyardsthemselves。ThusRussiaconqueredwithoneblowthemagnatesoftheDanubianprovinces，andtheapplauseofliberalcretinsthroughoutEurope。
Accordingtothe\"Réglementorganique，\"asthiscodeofthecorvéeiscalled，everyWallachianpeasantowestotheso—calledlandlord，besidesamassofdetailedpaymentsinkind:（1），12daysofgenerallabour;（2），onedayoffieldlabour;（3），onedayofwoodcarrying。
Inall，14daysintheyear。WithdeepinsightintoPoliticalEconomy，however，theworking—dayisnottakeninitsordinarysense，butastheworking—daynecessarytotheproductionofanaveragedailyproduct;andthataveragedailyproductisdeterminedinsocraftyawaythatnoCyclopswouldbedonewithitin24hours。Indrywords，theRéglementitselfdeclareswithtrueRussianironythatby12working—daysonemustunderstandtheproductofthemanuallabourof36days，by1dayoffieldlabour3
days，andby1dayofwoodcarryinginlikemannerthreetimesasmuch。
Inall，42corvéedays。Tothishadtobeaddedtheso—calledjobagie，serviceduetothelordforextraordinaryoccasions。Inproportiontothesizeofitspopulation，everyvillagehastofurnishannuallyadefinitecontingenttothejobagie。Thisadditionalcorvéeisestimatedat14daysforeachWallachianpeasant。Thustheprescribedcorvéeamountsto56working—daysyearly。ButtheagriculturalyearinWallachianumbersinconsequenceofthesevereclimateonly210days，ofwhich40
forSundaysandholidays，30onanaverageforbadweather，together70
days，donotcount。140working—daysremain。Theratioofthecorvéetothenecessarylabour56/84or662/3%givesamuchsmallerrateofsurplus—valuethanthatwhichregulatesthelabouroftheEnglishagriculturalorfactorylabourer。Thisis，however，onlythelegallyprescribedcorvée。Andinaspirityetmore\"liberal\"thantheEnglishFactoryActs，the\"Réglementorganique\"hasknownhowtofacilitateitsownevasion。Afterithasmade56daysoutof12，thenominalday’sworkofeachofthe56corvéedaysisagainsoarrangedthataportionofitmustfallontheensuingday。Inoneday，e。g。，mustbeweededanextentofland，which，forthiswork，especiallyinmaizeplantations，needstwiceasmuchtime。Thelegalday’sworkforsomekindsofagriculturallabourisinterpretableinsuchawaythatthedaybeginsinMayandendsinOctober。InMoldaviaconditionsarestillharder。\"The12corvéedaysofthe’Réglementorganique’criedaBoyarddrunkwithvictory，amountto365daysintheyear。\"[12]
IftheRéglementorganiqueoftheDanubianprovinceswasapositiveexpressionofthegreedforsurplus—labourwhicheveryparagraphlegalised，theEnglishFactoryActsarethenegativeexpressionofthesamegreed。
Theseactscurbthepassionofcapitalforalimitlessdrainingoflabour—power，byforciblylimitingtheworking—daybystateregulations，madebyastatethatisruledbycapitalist—andlandlord。Apartfromtheworking—classmovementthatdailygrewmorethreatening，thelimitingoffactorylabourwasdictatedbythesamenecessitywhichspreadguanoovertheEnglishfields。Thesameblindeagernessforplunderthatintheonecaseexhaustedthesoil，had，intheother，tornupbytherootsthelivingforceofthenation。PeriodicalepidemicsspeakonthispointasclearlyasthediminishingmilitarystandardinGermanyandFrance。[13]
TheFactoryActof1850nowinforce（1867）allowsfortheaverageworking—day10hours，i。e。，forthefirst5days12hoursfrom6a。m。to6p。m。，including1/2anhourforbreakfast，andanhourfordinner，andthusleaving10
1/2working—hours，and8hoursforSaturday，from6a。m。to2p。m。，ofwhich1/2anhourissubtractedforbreakfast。60working—hoursareleft，101/2foreachofthefirst5days，71/2forthelast。[14]
Certainguardiansoftheselawsareappointed，FactoryInspectors，directlyundertheHomeSecretary，whosereportsarepublishedhalf—yearly，byorderofParliament。Theygiveregularandofficialstatisticsofthecapitalisticgreedforsurplus—labour。
Letuslisten，foramoment，totheFactoryInspectors。[15]\"Thefraudulentmill—ownerbeginsworkaquarterofanhour（sometimesmore，sometimesless）before6a。m。，andleavesoffaquarterofanhour（sometimesmore，sometimesless）after6p。m。Hetakes5minutesfromthebeginningandfromtheendofthehalfhournominallyallowedforbreakfast，and10minutesatthebeginningandendofthehournominallyallowedfordinner。Heworksforaquarterofanhour（sometimesmore，sometimesless）
after2p。m。onSaturday。Thushisgainis？
Before6a。m。，……15minutes。
After6p。m。，……15\"
Atbreakfasttime，……10\"
Atdinnertime，……20\"
棗棗棗
Fivedays？300minutes，60\"
OnSaturdaybefore6a。m。，……15minutes。
Atbreakfasttime，……10\"
After2p。m。，……15\"
棗棗棗
40minutes。
Totalweekly，……340minutes。
Or5hoursand40minutesweekly，whichmultipliedby50workingweeksintheyear（allowingtwoforholidaysandoccasionalstoppages）isequalto27working—days。\"[16]
\"Fiveminutesaday’sincreasedwork，multipliedbyweeks，areequaltotwoandahalfdaysofproduceintheyear。\"[17]
\"Anadditionalhouradaygainedbysmallinstalmentsbefore6a。m。，after6p。m。，andatthebeginningandendofthetimesnominallyfixedformeals，isnearlyequivalenttoworking13monthsintheyear。\"[18]
Crisesduringwhichproductionisinterruptedandthefactorieswork\"shorttime，\"i。e。，foronlyapartoftheweek，naturallydonotaffectthetendencytoextendtheworking—day。Thelessbusinessthereis，themoreprofithastobemadeonthebusinessdone。Thelesstimespentinwork，themoreofthattimehastobeturnedintosurpluslabour—time。
ThustheFactoryInspector’sreportontheperiodofthecrisisfrom1857to1858:
\"Itmayseeminconsistentthatthereshouldbeanyoverworkingatatimewhentradeissobad;butthatverybadnessleadstothetransgressionbyunscrupulousmen，theygettheextraprofitofit……Inthelasthalfyear，saysLeonardHomer，122millsinmydistricthavebeengivenup;
143werefoundstanding，\"yet，over—workiscontinuedbeyondthelegalhours。[19]
\"Foragreatpartofthetime，\"saysMr。Howell，\"owingtothedepressionoftrade，manyfactorieswerealtogetherclosed，andastillgreaternumberwereworkingshorttime。Icontinue，however，toreceiveabouttheusualnumberofcomplaintsthathalf，orthree—quartersofanhourintheday，aresnatchedfromtheworkersbyencroachinguponthetimesprofessedlyallowedforrestandrefreshment。\"[20]Thesamephenomenonwasreproducedonasmallerscaleduringthefrightfulcotton—crisesfrom1861to1865。[21]\"Itissometimesadvancedbywayofexcuse，whenpersonsarefoundatworkinafactory，eitheratamealhour，oratsomeillegaltime，thattheywillnotleavethemillattheappointedhour，andthatcompulsionisnecessarytoforcethemtoceasework[cleaningtheirmachinery，&c。]，especiallyonSaturdayafternoons。But，ifthehandsremaininafactoryafterthemachineryhasceasedtorevolve……theywouldnothavebeensoemployedifsufficienttimehadbeensetapartspeciallyforcleaning，&c。，eitherbefore6a。m。[sic。！]orbefore2p。m。
onSaturdayafternoons。\"[22]
\"Theprofittobegainedbyit（over—workinginviolationoftheAct）
appearstobe，tomany，agreatertemptationthantheycanresist;theycalculateuponthechanceofnotbeingfoundout;andwhentheyseethesmallamountofpenaltyandcosts，whichthosewhohavebeenconvictedhavehadtopay，theyfindthatiftheyshouldbedetectedtherewillstillbeaconsiderablebalanceofgain……[23]Incaseswheretheadditionaltimeisgainedbyamultiplicationofsmalltheftsinthecourseoftheday，thereareinsuperabledifficultiestotheinspectorsmakingoutacase。\"[24]
These\"smallthefts\"ofcapitalfromthelabourer’smealandrecreationtime，thefactoryinspectorsalsodesignateas\"pettypilferingsofminutes，\"[25]\"snatchingafewminutes，\"[26]or，asthelabourerstechnicallycalledthem，\"nibblingandcribblingatmeal—times。\"[27]
Itisevidentthatinthisatmospheretheformationofsurplus—valuebysurplus—labour，isnosecret。\"Ifyouallowme，\"saidahighlyrespectablemastertome，\"toworkonlytenminutesinthedayover—time，youputonethousandayearinmypocket。\"[28]\"Momentsaretheelementsofprofit。\"[29]
Nothingisfromthispointofviewmorecharacteristicthanthedesignationoftheworkerswhoworkfulltimeas\"full—timers，\"andthechildrenunder13whoareonlyallowedtowork6hoursas\"half—timers。\"Theworkerisherenothingmorethanpersonifiedlabour—time。Allindividualdistinctionsaremergedinthoseof\"full—timers\"and\"half—timers\"[30]
SECTION3BRANCHESOFENGLISHINDUSTRYWITHOUTLEGALLIMITSTOEXPLOITATION
Wehavehithertoconsideredthetendencytotheextensionoftheworking—day，thewere—wolf’shungerforsurplus—labourinadepartmentwherethemonstrousexactions，notsurpassed，saysanEnglishbourgeoiseconomist，bythecrueltiesoftheSpaniardstotheAmericanred—skins，[31]causedcapitalatlasttobeboundbythechainsoflegalregulations。
Now，letuscastaglanceatcertainbranchesofproductioninwhichtheexploitationoflabouriseitherfreefromfetterstothisday，orwassoyesterday。
Mr。BroughtonCharlton，countymagistrate，declared，aschairmanofameetingheldattheAssemblyRooms，Nottingham，onthe14thJanuary，1860，\"thattherewasanamountofprivationandsufferingamongthatportionofthepopulationconnectedwiththelacetrade，unknowninotherpartsofthekingdom，indeed，inthecivilisedworld……Childrenofnineortenyearsaredraggedfromtheirsqualidbedsattwo，three，orfouro’clockinthemorningandcompelledtoworkforabaresubsistenceuntilten，eleven，ortwelveatnight，theirlimbswearingaway，theirframesdwindling，theirfaceswhitening，andtheirhumanityabsolutelysinkingintoastone—liketorpor，utterlyhorribletocontemplate……WearenotsurprisedthatMr。Mallett，oranyothermanufacturer，shouldstandforwardandprotestagainstdiscussion……Thesystem，astheRev。MontaguValpydescribesit，isoneofunmitigatedslavery，socially，physically，morally，andspiritually……Whatcanbethoughtofatownwhichholdsapublicmeetingtopetitionthattheperiodoflabourformenshallbediminishedtoeighteenhoursaday？……WedeclaimagainsttheVirginianandCaroliniancotton—planters。Istheirblack—market，theirlash，andtheirbarterofhumanfleshmoredetestablethanthisslowsacrificeofhumanitywhichtakesplaceinorderthatveilsandcollarsmaybefabricatedforthebenefitofcapitalists？’’[32]
ThepotteriesofStaffordshirehave，duringthelast22years，beenthesubjectofthreeparliamentaryinquiries。TheresultisembodiedinMr。Scriven’sReportof1841tothe\"Children’sEmploymentCommissioners，\"
inthereportofDr。Greenhowof1860publishedbyorderofthemedicalofficerofthePrivyCouncil（PublicHealth，3rdReport，112—113），lastly，inthereportofMr。Longeof1862inthe\"FirstReportoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission，ofthe13thJune，1863。\"Formypurposeitisenoughtotake，fromthereportsof1860and1863，somedepositionsoftheexploitedchildrenthemselves。Fromthechildrenwemayformanopinionastotheadults，especiallythegirlsandwomen，andthatinabranchofindustrybythesideofwhichcotton—spinningappearsanagreeableandhealthfuloccupation。[33]
WilliamWood，9yearsold，was7yearsand10monthswhenhebegantowork。He\"ranmoulds\"（carriedready—mouldedarticlesintothedrying—room，afterwardsbringingbacktheemptymould）fromthebeginning。Hecametoworkeverydayintheweekat6a。m。，andleftoffabout9p。m。\"Iworktill9o’clockatnightsixdaysintheweek。Ihavedonesosevenoreightweeks。\"Fifteenhoursoflabourforachild7yearsold！J。Murray，12
yearsofage，says:\"Iturnjigger，andrunmoulds。Icomeat6。SometimesIcomeat4。Iworkedallnightlastnight，till6o’clockthismorning。
Ihavenotbeeninbedsincethenightbeforelast。Therewereeightornineotherboysworkinglastnight。Allbutonehavecomethismorning。
Iget3shillingsandsixpence。Idonotgetanymoreforworkingatnight。
Iworkedtwonightslastweek。\"Fernyhough，aboyoften:\"Ihavenotalwaysanhour（fordinner）。Ihaveonlyhalfanhoursometimes;onThursday，Friday，andSaturday。[34]
Dr。GreenhowstatesthattheaveragedurationoflifeinthepotterydistrictsofStoke—on—Trent，andWolstantonisextraordinarilyshort。AlthoughinthedistrictofStoke，only36。6%andinWolstantononly30。4%
oftheadultmalepopulationabove20areemployedinthepotteries，amongthemenofthatageinthefirstdistrictmorethanhalf，inthesecond，nearly2/5ofthewholedeathsaretheresultofpulmonarydiseasesamongthepotters。Dr。Boothroyd，amedicalpractitioneratHanley，says:\"Eachsuccessivegenerationofpottersismoredwarfedandlessrobustthantheprecedingone。\"Inlikemanneranotherdoctor，Mr。M’Bean:\"Sincehebegantopracticeamongthepotters25yearsago，hehadobservedamarkeddegenerationespeciallyshownindiminutionofstatureandbreadth。\"ThesestatementsaretakenfromthereportofDr。Greenhowin1860。[35]
FromthereportoftheCommissionersin1863，thefollowing:Dr。J。
T。Arledge，seniorphysicianoftheNorthStaffordshireInfirmary，says:
\"Thepottersasaclass，bothmenandwomen，representadegeneratedpopulation，bothphysicallyandmorally。Theyare，asarule，stuntedingrowth，ill—shaped，andfrequentlyill—formedinthechest;theybecomeprematurelyold，andarecertainlyshort—lived;theyarephlegmaticandbloodless，andexhibittheirdebilityofconstitutionbyobstinateattacksofdyspepsia，anddisordersoftheliverandkidneys，andbyrheumatism。Butofalldiseasestheyareespeciallypronetochest—disease，topneumonia，phthisis，bronchitis，andasthma。Oneformwouldappearpeculiartothem，andisknownaspotter’sasthma，orpotter’sconsumption。Scrofulaattackingtheglands，orbones，orotherpartsofthebody，isadiseaseoftwo—thirdsormoreofthepotters……Thatthe’degenerescence’ofthepopulationofthisdistrictisnotevengreaterthanitis，isduetotheconstantrecruitingfromtheadjacentcountry，andintermarriageswithmorehealthyraces。\"[36]
Mr。CharlesParsons，latehousesurgeonofthesameinstitution，writesinalettertoCommissionerLonge，amongstotherthings:\"Icanonlyspeakfrompersonalobservationandnotfromstatisticaldata，butIdonothesitatetoassertthatmyindignationhasbeenarousedagainandagainatthesightofpoorchildrenwhosehealthhasbeensacrificedtogratifytheavariceofeitherparentsoremployers。\"Heenumeratesthecausesofthediseasesofthepotters，andsumsthemupinthephrase，\"longhours。\"ThereportoftheCommissiontruststhat\"amanufacturewhichhasassumedsoprominentaplaceinthewholeworld，willnotlongbesubjecttotheremarkthatitsgreatsuccessisaccompaniedwiththephysicaldeterioration，widespreadbodilysuffering，andearlydeathoftheworkpeople……bywhoselabourandskillsuchgreatresultshavebeenachieved。\"[37]AndallthatholdsofthepotteriesinEnglandistrueofthoseinScotland。[38]
Themanufactureoflucifermatchesdatesfrom1833，fromthediscoveryofthemethodofapplyingphosphorustothematchitself。Since1845thismanufacturehasrapidlydevelopedinEngland，andhasextendedespeciallyamongstthethicklypopulatedpartsofLondonaswellasinManchester，Birmingham，Liverpool，Bristol，Norwich，NewcastleandGlasgow。Withithasspreadtheformoflockjaw，whichaViennaphysicianin1845discoveredtobeadiseasepeculiartolucifer—matchmakers。Halftheworkersarechildrenunderthirteen，andyoungpersonsundereighteen。Themanufactureisonaccountofitsunhealthinessandunpleasantnessinsuchbadodourthatonlythemostmiserablepartofthelabouringclass，half—starvedwidowsandsoforth，deliveruptheirchildrentoit，\"theragged，half—starved，untaughtchildren。\"[39]
OfthewitnessesthatCommissionerWhiteexamined（1863），270wereunder18，50under10，10only8，and5only6yearsold。Arangeoftheworking—dayfrom12to14or15hours，night—labour，irregularmeal—times，mealsforthemostparttakenintheveryworkroomsthatarepestilentwithphosphorus。
DantewouldhavefoundtheworsthorrorsofhisInfernosurpassedinthismanufacture。
Inthemanufactureofpaper—hangingsthecoarsersortsareprintedbymachine;thefinerbyhand（block—printing）。ThemostactivebusinessmonthsarefromthebeginningofOctobertotheendofApril。Duringthistimetheworkgoesonfastandfuriouswithoutintermissionfrom6a。m。to10
p。m。orfurtherintothenight。
J。Leachdeposes:\"Lastwintersixoutofnineteengirlswereawayfromill—healthatonetimefromover—work。Ihavetobawlatthemtokeepthemawake。\"W。Duffy:\"Ihaveseenwhenthechildrencouldnoneofthemkeeptheireyesopenforthework;indeed，noneofuscould。\"J。Lightbourne:
\"Am13Weworkedlastwintertill9（evening），andthewinterbeforetill10。Iusedtocrywithsorefeeteverynightlastwinter。\"G。Apsden:\"Thatboyofminewhenhewas7yearsoldIusedtocarryhimonmybacktoandfrothroughthesnow，andheusedtohave16hoursaday……Ihaveoftenkneltdowntofeedhimashestoodbythemachine，forhecouldnotleaveitorstop。\"Smith，themanagingpartnerofaManchesterfactory:\"We（hemeanshis\"hands\"whoworkfor\"us\"）workonwithnostoppageformeals，sothatday’sworkof101/2hoursisfinishedby4。30p。m。，andallafterthatisover—time。\"[40]（DoesthisMr。Smithtakenomealshimselfduring101/2hours？）\"We（thissameSmith）seldomleaveoffworkingbefore6p。m。（hemeansleaveofftheconsumptionof\"our\"labour—powermachines），sothatwe（iterumCrispinus）
arereallyworkingover—timethewholeyearroundForallthese，childrenandadultsalike（152childrenandyoungpersonsand140adults），theaverageworkforthelast18monthshasbeenattheveryleast7days，5hours，or781/2hoursaweek。ForthesixweeksendingMay2ndthisyear（1862），theaveragewashigher？8daysor84hoursaweek。\"StillthissameMr。
Smith，whoissoextremelydevotedtothepluralismajestatis，addswithasmile，\"Machine—workisnotgreat。\"Sotheemployersintheblock—printingsay:\"Handlabourismorehealthythanmachinework。\"Onthewhole，manufacturersdeclarewithindignationagainsttheproposal\"tostopthemachinesatleastduringmeal—times。\"Aclause，saysMr。Otley，managerofawall—paperfactoryintheBorough，\"whichallowedworkbetween，say6a。m。and9p。inwouldsuitus（！）verywell，butthefactoryhours，6a。m。to6p。m。，arenotsuitable。Ourmachineisalwaysstoppedfordinner。（Whatgenerosity！）Thereisnowasteofpaperandcolourtospeakof。But，\"headdssympathetically，\"Icanunderstandthelossoftimenotbeingliked。\"ThereportoftheCommissionopineswithnaïvetethatthefearofsome\"leadingfirms\"oflosingtime，i。e。，thetimeforappropriatingthelabourofothers，andthencelosingprofitisnotasufficientreasonforallowingchildrenunder13，andyoungpersonsunder18，working12to16hoursperday，tolosetheirdinner，norforgivingittothemascoalandwateraresuppliedtothesteam—engine，soaptowool，oiltothewheel？asmerelyauxiliarymaterialtotheinstrumentsoflabour，duringtheprocessofproductionitself;[41]
NobranchofindustryinEngland（wedonottakeintoaccountthemakingofbreadbymachineryrecentlyintroduced）haspreserveduptothepresentdayamethodofproductionsoarchaic，so？asweseefromthepoetsoftheRomanEmpire？pre—christian，asbaking。Butcapital，aswassaidearlier，isatfirstindifferentastotp;technicalcharacterofthelabour—process;itbeginsbytakingitjustasitfindsit。
Theincredibleadulterationofbread，especiallyinLondon，wasfirstrevealedbytheHouseofCommonsCommittee\"ontheadulterationofarticlesoffood\"（1855—56），andDr。Hassall’swork，\"Adulterationsdetected。\"[42]TheconsequenceoftheserevelationswastheActofAugust6th，1860，\"forpreventingtheadulterationofarticlesoffoodanddrink，\"aninoperativelaw，asitnaturallyshowsthetenderestconsiderationforeveryFree—traderwhodeterminesbythebuyingorsellingofadulteratedcommodities\"toturnanhonestpenny。\"[43]TheCommitteeitselfformulatedmoreorlessnaïvelyitsconvictionthatFree—trademeantessentiallytradewithadulterated，orastheEnglishingeniouslyputit，\"sophisticated\"goods。InfactthiskindofsophistryknowsbetterthanProtagorashowtomakewhiteblack，andblackwhite，andbetterthantheEleaticshowtodemonstrateadoculosthateverythingisonlyappearance。[44]
AtalleventstheCommitteehaddirectedtheattentionofthepublictoits\"dailybread，\"andthereforetothebakingtrade。AtthesametimeinpublicmeetingsandinpetitionstoParliamentrosethecryoftheLondonjourneymenbakersagainsttheirover—work，&c。ThecrywassourgentthatMr。H。S。Tremenheere，alsoamemberoftheCommissionof1863severaltimesmentioned，wasappointedRoyalCommissionerofInquiry。Hisreport。[45]togetherwiththeevidencegiven，rousedcapitalist，orlandlord，orsinecurist，iscommandedtoeathisbreadinthesweatofhisbrow，buttheydidnotknowthathehadtoeatdailyinhisbreadacertainquantityofhumanperspirationmixedwiththedischargeofabscesses，cobwebs，deadblack—beetles，andputridGermanyeast，withoutcountingalum，sand，andotheragreeablemineralingredients。Withoutanyregardtohisholiness，Free—trade，thefreebaking—tradewasthereforeplacedunderthesupervisionoftheStateinspectors（CloseoftheParliamentarysessionof1863），andbythesameActofParliament，workfrom9intheeveningto5inthemorningwasforbiddenforjourneymenbakersunder18。Thelastclausespeaksvolumesastotheover—workinthisold—fashioned，homelylineofbusiness。
\"TheworkofaLondonjourneymanbakerbegins，asarule，ataboutelevenatnight。Atthathourhe’makesthedough，’？alaboriousprocess，whichlastsfromhalfanhourtothreequartersofanhour，accordingtothesizeofthebatchorthelabourbestoweduponit。Hethenliesdownuponthekneading—board，whichisalsothecoveringofthetroughinwhichthedoughis’made’;andwithasackunderhim，andanotherrolledupasapillow，hesleepsforaboutacoupleofhours。Heisthenengagedinarapidandcontinuouslabourforaboutfivehours？nbsp;throwingoutthedough，’scalingitoff，’mouldingit，puttingitintotheoven，preparingandbakingrollsandfancybread，takingthebatchbreadoutoftheoven，andupintotheshop，&c。，&c。Thetemperatureofabakehouserangesfromabout75toupwardsof90degrees，andinthesmallerbakehousesapproximatesusuallytothehigherratherthantothelowerdegreeofheat。Whenthebusinessofmakingthebread，rolls，&c。，isover，thatofitsdistributionbegins，andaconsiderableproportionofthejourneymeninthetrade，afterworkinghardinthemannerdescribedduringthenight，areupontheirlegsformanyhoursduringtheday，carryingbaskets，orwheelinghand—carts，andsometimesagaininthebakehouse，leavingoffworkatvarioushoursbetween1and6p。m。accordingtotheseasonoftheyear，ortheamountandnatureoftheirmaster’sbusiness;
whileothersareagainengagedinthebakehousein’bringingout’morebatchesuntillateintheafternoon。[46]……Duringwhatiscalled’theLondonseason，’theoperativesbelongingtothe’full—priced’bakersattheWestEndofthetown，generallybeginworkat11p。m。，andareengagedinmakingthebread，withoneortwoshort（sometimesveryshort）intervalsofrest，upto8o’clockthenextmorning。
Theyarethenengagedalldaylong，upto4，5，6，andaslateas7o’clockintheeveningcarryingoutbread，orsometimesintheafternooninthebakehouseagain，assistinginthebiscuit—baking。Theymayhave，aftertheyhavedonetheirwork，sometimesfiveorsix，sometimesonlyfourorfivehours’sleepbeforetheybeginagain。OnFridaystheyalwaysbeginsooner，someaboutteno’clock，andcontinueinsomecases，atwork，eitherinmakingordeliveringthebreadupto8p。m。onSaturdaynight，butmoregenerallyupto4or5o’clock，Sundaymorning。OnSundaysthemenmustattendtwiceorthreetimesduringthedayforanhourortwotomakepreparationsforthenextday’sbread……
Themenemployedbytheundersellingmasters（whoselltheirbreadunderthe’fullprice，’andwho，asalreadypointedout，comprisethree—fourthsoftheLondonbakers）havenotonlytoworkontheaveragelongerhours，buttheirworkisalmostentirelyconfinedtothebakehouse。Theundersellingmastersgenerallyselltheirbread……intheshop。Iftheysenditout，whichisnotcommon，exceptassupplyingchandlers’shops，theyusuallyemployotherhandsforthatpurpose。Itisnottheirpracticetodeliverbreadfromhousetohouse。Towardstheendoftheweek……themenbeginonThursdaynightat10o’clock，andcontinueonwithonlyslightintermissionuntillateonSaturdayevening。\"[47]
Eventhebourgeoisintellectunderstandsthepositionofthe\"underselling\"
masters。\"Theunpaidlabourofthemenwasmadethesourcewherebythecompetitionwascarriedon。\"[48]Andthe\"full—priced\"bakerdenounceshisundersellingcompetitorstotheCommissionofInquiryasthievesofforeignlabourandadulterators。\"Theyonlyexistnowbyfirstdefraudingthepublic，andnextgetting18hours’
workoutoftheirmenfor12hours’wages。\"[49]
Theadulterationofbreadandtheformationofaclassofbakersthatsellsthebreadbelowthefullprice，datefromthebeginningofthe18thcentury，fromthetimewhenthecorporatecharacterofthetradewaslost，andthecapitalistintheformofthemillerorflour—factor，risesbehindthenominalmasterbaker[50]Thuswaslaidthefoundationofcapitalisticproductioninthistrade，oftheunlimitedextensionoftheworking—dayandofnight—labour，althoughthelatteronlysince1824gainedaseriousfooting，eveninLondon。[51]
Afterwhathasjustbeensaid，itwillbeunderstoodthattheReportoftheCommissionclassesjourneymenbakersamongtheshort—livedlabourers，who，havingbygoodluckescapedthenormaldecimationofthechildrenoftheworking—class，rarelyreachtheageof42。Nevertheless，thebakingtradeisalwaysoverwhelmedwithapplicants。Thesourcesofthesupplyoftheselabour—powerstoLondonareScotland，thewesternagriculturaldistrictsofEngland，andGermany。
Intheyears1858—60，thejourneymenbakersinIrelandorganisedattheirownexpensegreatmeetingstoagitateagainstnightandSundaywork。
Thepublic？e。g。，attheDublinmeetinginMay，1860？tooktheirpartwithIrishwarmth。Asaresultofthismovement，day—labouralonewassuccessfullyestablishedinWexford，Kilkenny，Clonmel，Waterford，&p;\"InLimerick，wherethegrievancesofthejourneymenaredemonstratedtobeexcessive，themovementhasbeendefeatedbytheoppositionofthemasterbakers，themillerbakersbeingthegreatestopponents。TheexampleofLimerickledtoaretrogressioninEnnisandTipperary。InCork，wherethestrongestpossibledemonstrationoffeelingtookplace，themasters，byexercisingtheirpowerofturningthemenoutofemployment，havedefeatedthemovement。InDublin，themasterbakershaveofferedthemostdeterminedoppositiontothemovement，andbydiscountenancingasmuchaspossiblethejourneymenpromotingit，havesucceededinleadingthemenintoacquiescenceinSundayworkandnight—work，contrarytotheconvictionsofthemen。\"[52]