Regardedasascientificstudy，whichitrightlyclaimstobe，thisbookhastwoconsiderabledefects，oneofmanner，oneofmatter。Itsanalysisisconductedwithahalf-humorousparadeofpompousterminologyapttowearuponthetemperofthereader。Itsexaggeratedstressuponasinglestrainofpersonality，asadominantinfluenceintheformationofhabitsandthedirectionofconduct，isamoreseriousblemishinaworkofprofoundandpenetratingpower。Butforourpresentpurpose，thatofdiscoveringtheelementsofwasteinnationalconsumption，itisoffirst-rateimportance。
Mr。Veblen\'smainlineofargumentmaybesummarisedasfollows。Inprimitivesocietywarandthechasewillbethechiefmeansbywhichmenmaysatisfythatcravingforpersonaldistinctionandimportancewhichisthemostenduringandimportunateofpsychicaldesires。Personalprocess，mainlyphysical，displayedinfightorhunt，willsecureleadershiporascendencyintriballife。Sothosetrophieswhichattestsuchprowess，theskullsorscalpsofenemies，theskinsofslainanimals，orthelivepossessionoftameanimals，willbethemosthighly-prizedformsofproperty。
Whenthecaptureandenslavementofenemieshastakentheplaceofpromiscuousslaughter，thesizeandvarietyofhisretinueofslavesforpersonalservice，concubinage，ormerelydecorativeshow，attestthegreatnessofthewarrior-chief。
Whentheindustrialartsaresufficientlydeveloped，slaveswillbesettoproducesuchotherformsofproperty，enlargedhousing，quantitiesofshowygarments，cultivatedfields，herdsofcattle，asaffordconspicuousevidenceofthepersonalprowessofthechief。Glory，farmorethanutilityorcomfort，continuestobethedominantmotive。
Ascivilisationbeginstomakeway，thenotionofwhatconstitutespersonalprocessbeginstobemodified。Thoughphysicalforcemaystillremainachiefingredient，skillandcunning，wisdomincounsel，capacityforcommandandlaw-making，cometoberecognisedasalsogivingprestige。
Asnotonlythestrongmanbyhisstrength，butthecunningmanbyhiscunning，cangetthatwealthorpropertywhicharetheinsigniaofprowess，propertywillhoweverstillbevaluedbyitsownermainlyfortheprestigeitaffordshimamonghisfellows。Itwillstillforthemostparttakeshapeinexternalformsofadornmentormagnificence。Asitdevelopsintotheculminatingformoftheorientalcourt，theelementofdisplaywillremaintheparamountconsideration，towhicheventhesense-enjoymentsoftheownerwillbesecondary。
Theeffectofthisearlylinkingofpropertytopersonalprowesswillbethatinthegeneralmindofmanthepossessionofpropertyishonorific。
Itsecuresforitsownerapresumptionofpersonalgreatness。Therefore，itspossessionmustbekeptinfullandconstantevidence，especiallywhereinheritancedestroysthedirectpresumptionofthepersonalprowessoftheactualowner。Hencethetwoessentialfeaturesofthemodeoflivingofthedominantclassorcaste，ostentatiouswasteandconspicuousleisure。
Forthustheprestigeofpropertyisbestenforced。Gorgeouspalaceswithluxuriousgrounds，magnificentbanquetsandentertainments，extravagantrefinementsofsensualluxury，adornmentsoffabrics，jewelsandarticlesoflaboriousskill，magnificenttombsandothermonuments——theelaborateparadeofwaste，inordertofastenonthecommonimaginationthesenseofwonderandofadmirationofthepersonwhocouldaffordsolavishawaste!Thefamilyoftherichmanischieflyvaluedasaninstrumentformakingthisdisplayeffective。Hiswifeorwivesmustdonowork，notevencopyhisparasiticactivities；theymuststandasopenmonumentsofconspicuousleisure，theirpersonaladornments，theirretinuesofservants，theentireelaborateritualoftheirfutilelives，mustbedevotedtoshowinghowmuchtheirpossessorcanaffordtocaste。Suchwasthelifeofthearistocracyinoldenandmedievaldays!
Ithaspassedinmostessentials，bytraditionandimitation，tothelifeoftheupperclassinmoderncivilisednations。Themodesandconceptionsofpersonalprowessandprestigehaveindeedshifted。Themanofbusinesshasdethronedthewarriororthepoliticalchieftain。Thetypicalgreatmanofourtimeisthegreatentrepreneur，thefinancierwhodirectstheflowofcapitalandrulespricesonchange，therailwayorshippingmagnatewhoplansacombine，theableandastutemerchant，whocontrolsamarket，themanufacturerwhoconductsagreatproductivebusiness，theorganiserofasuccessfuldepartmentalstore。Thepersonalqualitiesandactivitiesinvolvedinthesetasksareverydifferentfromthosepossessedbybarbarianchieftainsororientaldespots。
Addtosuchmenthesurvivinglandedaristocracyofrentreceivers，andaconsiderablenumberoffamiliesthatliveondividends，takingnorealpartintheadministrationofindustry，andwehaveasynopsisoftheclasswhichtodaywieldsprestige。Thoughtheelaborationofmodernartsofpleasuredirectsagreatpartoftheexpenditureofthis，ourupperclass，thetraditionalhabitsofostentatiouswasteandconspicuousleisureasmodesofgloryarestillparamountmotives。Mostrichpeoplevaluericheslessforthepleasurestheyaffordthanforthesocialconsideration，thepersonaldistinction，theyprocure。Thecravingtorealisesuperiorityoverothers，asattestedbytheirservilityorimitation，thepowerofmoneytomakeothersdoyourwill，thesenseoffreedomtorealiseeverypassingcaprice，theseremainthechiefvalueofriches，andmouldthevaluationsoflifeforthebulkofthewell-to-do。
Sucharetheinevitableeffectsofeasily-gottenandexcessivewealthuponthepossessors。Sofarastheyoperate，theyinducefutileextravaganceinexpenditure。Insteadofmakingforutility，theymakefordisutilityofconsumption。Suchisthegistofthisanalysisoftheleisuredlife。
§；11。Expenditurewhichistobeeffectivelyostentatious，soastoimpressitsmagnificenceuponthelargestnumberofotherpeople，cannotbedirectedtothesatisfactionofarealpersonalwant，evenabadwant。
Futilityisofitsessence。Theverytypeofthisexpenditureisadisplayoffireworks:thereisnootherwayofconsumingsolargeaquantityofwealthinsoshortatimewithsuchsensationalpublicityandwithnoenduringeffectwhatever。Thisprivateextravagancemayperhapsbeparalleledinpublicexpenditurebythesquanderingofmillionsuponwar-shipswhicharenotneeded，willneverbeused，andwillbeobsoletewithinafewyearsoftheirconstruction。
Thedefectswhicheverysanesocialcriticfindsinthemodesoflivingoftherich，theirfrivolity，trivialityandfutility，areillustrationsofMr。Veblen\'sthesis。Perhapsthelargestcomplexofformsoffutilewaste，wasteofmoneyandoftime，iscontainedintheperformanceofwhat，withcuriousaptnessofphrase，aretermed\'socialduties\'，theidleroundofvisits，entertainmentsandfunctionswhichconstitutesthe\'societylife\'。Ispeakoftheaptnessoftheterm\'socialduties\'。Thisisnoparadox，butmerelythefinestinstanceofthatperversionofvaluesandvaluationswhichisinherentinthesituation。Foritisessentialtotheaccuracyofthisanalysisthattherichmembersofsocietyshouldregardtheirmostfutileactivitiesas\'duties\'，andtheirsmallsectionofhumanityas\'society\'。
Oftheexpenditurewhichislaidoutonthesatisfactionofmaterialwants，thewasteordisutilitywilloftenbeconsiderable。ButNatureisstrongenoughtoenforcesomesenseandmoderationinthesatisfactionofprimaryorganicdesires。While，therefore，thereismuchluxuryandwasteinthematerialstandardofcomfortoftherich，wedoquitewrongtofindinfoodandclothingandothermaterialconsumptionourchiefinstancesofluxuryandwaste。Itisinthenon-materialexpenditurethattheproportionofwasteordisutilityislargest。Thegreatmorallaw，corruptiooptimipessima，requiresthatthisbeso。Ifweseekthelargestsourcesofinjuriouswasteinthestandardofthewell-to-doclasses，weshallfindthemintheexpenditureuponrecreation，educationandcharity。
NOTES:
1。OnthesideofConsumptionasofProductionaprogressivesocietythathasnotabandoneditselftoexcessiverationalismwillrecognisethedesirabilityofkeepingascopefor\'bonnechance\'and\'hazard\'。CfTarde。
I。，p。130。
2。Thoughtheterm\'conventional\'appearsformallytoprecludetheplayofindividualtasteorjudgment，itisinfactonlyinsuchexpendituresthatthesequalitiesobtainscopeforexpression。Forthoughconventionprescribesthegeneralmodeofsuchexpenditure，itleavesafarlargerscopeforpersonalchoiceandcapriciousvariationthaninthemorenecessaryelementsofexpenditure。CHAPTERXI:SPORT，CULTUREAND
CHARITY
§；1。Itisnomerechancethatmakessportthespecialfieldfortheattainmentanddisplayofpersonalprestigeamongthewell-to-doclasses。
Primitivemaninhisearlystruggleforlifehadtoputallhispowersofbodyandmind，allhisstrengthandcunning，intothequick，sure，anddistantdiscoveryofbeastsorothermenwhowoulddestroyhim。Hemustpursueandkillthem，orsuccessfullyavoidthem。Hemustseekoutanimalorvegetablefoods，trackingthembysignsandsnares，rapidoffoot，keenofeyeandscent，quick，strong，andaccurateofgrasp。Torunandspring，toclimbandswimandstrikeandthrowwerenecessaryhumanaccomplishments。
Theyhadahighsurvivalvalue。Naturehadtoevolveandmaintainamanwhohadthecapacitytodothesethingswell，andwhowaswillingtoundergothenecessarytoilandpainofacquiringandexercisingtheseartsandcrafts。Toride，toshoot，tomanageboats，wereoccupationsofprimeutility。
Successfulmatingwasalsonecessaryforsurvival，andsotheartsofcourtship，dancing，music，decoration，andvariousdisplaysofgraceandvigourwereevolved。Thesimpleactivitiesthatwereelaboratedintotheseartsofhunting，fighting，mating，wereinstinctive，andstrongfeelingsofpleasurewereattachedtothem，asNature\'slure。Whenreason，orconsciouscunning，cametocooperatewithinstinct，complicatingandrefiningtheusefularts，thespecificpleasuresofinstinctivesatisfactionwereaccompaniedbyageneralsenseofpersonalelationorpride。Now，inman，asinotheranimals，practicewasneededforthesuccessfulperformanceoftheseusefulactivities。Thispracticetakestheformofplay，amoreorlessrealisticsimulationofthepracticesoffighting，hunting，courtship，inwhich，however，considerablescopeexistsforvariationsandsurprises，thesurvivalvalueofwhichisreal，thoughindirect。Sincetheseformsofplayappealtoandexercisethesameactivitiesasareinvolvedintheseriousaffairsoflife，thesamesortsofsatisfactionareattachedtothem。Thenaturalmeaningofplayisthatitisapreparationforwork，i。e。，forthearduous，painful，andoftendangeroustasksinvolvedin\'thestruggleoflife，\'
andthepleasureofplayistheinducementtotheacquisitionofthisusefulskill。
§；2。Ifthisbeso，itmaybepossibleforsomementosuckthepleasurefromtheplaywithoutperformingtheusefulworkforwhichitisapreparation。Theplayinstinctscanbemadetoyieldadesirablelifeofinterestandpleasuretoanyclassofmenwhoareenabledtogetotherstoperformtheirshareofusefulwork，andthustoprovidethemwiththetime，energyandmaterialmeansfortheelaborationoftheplaysideoflife。Suchisthephysicalexplanationofthesportsman。TheplaywhichNaturedesignedasmeanstolife，hetakesasanend，andlives\'asportinglife\'。Someofhissportsbearonthesurfacefewsignsofbiologicalplayaboutthem。Themanualandmentaldexterityofsuchindoorgamesasbridgeandbilliards，appearquiteunrelatedtothearduouspursuitsofmountaineeringorbig-gamehunting。Betweenthesetwoliethegreatmajorityofactivesports，suchasshooting，racing，andthevariousgamesofball。
Noonewhoanalysescarefullythefeelingsofpleasuregotfromaboundaryhit，arunwiththeball，aneck-to-neckrace，oranyotherathleticachievement，candoubttheirnature。
Fighting，hunting，fishing，climbing，exploring，reducedtosports，containjustasmuch\'realism\'asisneededtoevokethepleasurableexcitementwhichsustainedtheseskilfuleffortswhentheybelongedtothestruggleforlife。Someoftheimitationsmaybesoclosetorealityastorecallinalmostitsfullintensitytheprimalthrill，asintiger-stalking，inboxing，orrockclimbing。Inball-gamesthefictitiouscircumstancescallformoreimagination，thoughthepleasureoftheactualstrokeischieflyaracememoryofablowstruckatanenemyorofablowwardedoff。Noonecandoubtthenatureofthefiercepleasureofthefootballscrimmagewithitsmortalmake-believe。
Althoughinmanysportssomeelementofphysicalriskisneededtosustaintherealism，itisusuallyreducedtotriflingdimensions。Thisisalsotrueofthepainfulenduranceincidentaltotheprimitivestruggle。
Themodernsportsmanorexplorercommonlydeviseswaysofeconomisingbothhispersonalriskandhispersonaleffort。Beatersfindtheanimalorbirdforhimtoshoot；nativeportersandguidescarryfoodforhim，andeasehispath。Hisobjectistosecurethemaximumpleasureofachievementwiththeminimumriskandeffort。Perhapsthemosthighly-elaboratedexampleistheplayfulrevivalofthemigratoryandexploringinstincts，fromthepicnictotheworld-tour，withthecomplexapparatusofpleasure-travelwhichoccupiessolargeapartinthelifeofthewell-to-doclasses。Theluxuriouslifeoftravelinwhichthemotor-car，thetraindeluxe，ortheyachtcarriesmenandwomenfromthegorgeoushotelofonebeautyspottothatofanother，ismadepleasurableortolerablebywakingupthedimshadowofsomewanderingancestor，whosehuntingorpastoralhabitsrequiredsomesatisfactiontoevokethelife-preservingeffort。Camping-outandcaravanningaresomewhatmorerealisticreproductions，bringinginmoreofthegregariousorcorporateinstinctofthetribe。
Howsubtlearetheartificesbywhichhumancunningseekstoexploitthepastisbestillustrated，however，inthepurelyspectatorialorsympatheticsurroundingsofsport。Toplayfootballisoneremovefrombattle，towatchthegameistworemoves，towatchthe\"tape\"orfollowthescoresinthenewspapersisthreeremoves。Yetmillionsoflittlethrillsofsatisfactionaregotfromthissimulationofasimulatedfight。Blendedinvariousdegreeswithotherzests，ofhazard，ofpettycunning，andavarice，wherebettingentersintosport，thesportinginterestrankshighestofallinthescaleofvaluesamongtheable-bodiedmalesofallclassesinEnglish-speakingpeoples。
Addedtothepleasurefromtheoutputofstrengthorskillinsportisthegeneralsentimentofexultation，thesenseofglory。Towhatmustthatbeattributed？Nottothemagnitudeofthestrengthorskill。Anavvymaydisplaygreaterstrengthorenduranceinhiswork，atrapperoracommonfishermanafinerskillincatchinghisprey。Butthetruegloryofsportsmanshipisdeniedthem。Why？Becausetheirworkisuseful，andtheyaredoingitforaliving。Thegloryofthesuccessfulsportsmanisduetothefactthathisdeedsarefutile。Andthisconspicuousfutilityisattherootofthematter。Thefactthathecangivetime，energy，andmoneytosporttestifiestohispossessionofindependentmeans。Hecanaffordtobeanidler，andthemoreobviouslyuselessandexpensivethesport，thehighertheprestigeattachingtoit。
Hispersonalgloryofstrength，endurance，orskillissetinthisaureoleofparasitism。Thecrucialtestofthisinterpretationisverysimple。LetitturnoutthataMarathonwinner，whoseemedtobeagentleman，wasreallyaprofessional，whatadropinhispersonalprestige!Theprofessionalisamanwhohastoearnaliving，hisreputationasasportsmanisdamagedbythatfact。Cantherebeanymoreconvincingproofthatthehighprestigeofsportisduetotheevidenceoffinancialprowesswhichitaffords？
Thehuntingandthefightinginstinctsevidentlyunderliethepleasureofnearlyalltheexclusivelymalesports。Doubtlessotherinstinctivesatisfactionsenterin，suchasthegregariousinstinctwithitsconsciouselaborationofespritdecorps。Wheneveranygameorsportbringsthesexesintorelationwithoneanother，thematinginstinctsareevidentlyinvolved。
Thecrossingofwarwithsexinthetheoryandpracticeofchivalrywasaconsciousandartisticblendingofthesepleasuremotives。
Butthistreatmentofsportasafrivolouspursuitofpleasureignoresoneimportantaspect。Sport，itwillbeurged，afterallhashealthforitspermanentutility。Itisexerciseforthebodyanddiversionforthemind。Itwardsoffthenaturalconsequencesofthepurelyparasiticlife，whichaprivateincomerenderspossible，byprovidingwork-substitutes。
Theprimallaw，\'inthesweatofthyfaceshaltthoueatbread，\'isgracefullyevadedbygamesthatincludeagentleperspiration。Golfmaytaketheplaceofspade-labourtowinappetiteanddigestion；bridgewillsavethebrainfromabsolutestagnation。SoNature\'sself-protectivecunningelaboratesthesemodesofsham-work。
§；3。Thesocialcondemnationofasporting-lifeistwo-fold。Inthefirstplace，itdivertsintolowerformsofactivitythezestsandinterestsintendedtopromotealifeofworkandart。Thesporting-lifeandstandardschokethefinerarts。Thesportsmanandthegamesterarebaserartistschoosingthelowerinsteadofthehighermodesofself-realisationinmanualandintellectualskill。Thismaintenanceofbarbarianstandardsofvaluesbytheclassespossessingsocialprestigeisagreatobstacletothedevelopmentofscience，art，andliterature。Inthesecondplace，sportspoilsthespontaneityandlibertyofplay，whichisanecessityofeveryhealthylife。Itspoilsitforthesportsmanbyreasonofitsartificialityanditsexcess。Forthesporting-lifedoesnotsatisfythosewhopractiseit。ItcarriestheNemesisofboredom。Thesenseoftrivialityandoffutilitygraduallyeatsthrough，andthemake-believerealism，whenconfrontedwiththeseriousvaluesoflife，showsitsemptiness。
Aheaviersocialdamageistheeconomiccostwhichtheexpensivefutilityimposes。
Forsportinvolvesthelargestdiversionofunearnedincomeintounproductiveexpenditure。Notonlydoesitdedicatetoextravagantwastealargershareoftheland，thelabour，andtheenterpriseofmenthananyotherhumanerror，unlessitbewaritself，butitstealstheplay-timeofthemanytomaketheover-leisureofthefew。Iftheparasiticpowerwhichsustainsthesporting-lifeweretakenaway，theworldwouldnotbedullerormoreserious。Onthecontrary，playwouldbemoreabundant，freer，morevaried，andlessartificialinitsmodes。
Theidentificationofasportsmanwithagentlemanhascarriedgreatweightintheunconscioussettlingofsocialvalues，andinEnglandhasbeensubtlyserviceableasasentimentalsafeguardagainsttheattacksupontheeconomicsupportsnotonlyoflandlordismbutofotherwealthwhichhascovereditselfwiththetrappingsofsport。
Therelativeprestigeofotheroccupationsisdeterminedtoaconsiderableextentbytheirassociationwiththesporting-lifeorwiththeoriginalactivitieswhichsportreproduces。Notonlytheidlelandowner，buttheyeoman，andinalessdegreethetenantfarmer，enjoyasocialconsiderationbeyondthemeasureoftheirpecuniarystanding，byvirtueoftheopportunitiesforhuntingandothersportwhichtheyenjoy。Partofthereputationofthemilitaryandthenavalservicesisexplainedbythesurvivalofthebarbarianfeelingthatalifeofhazardandrapinecontainsfineropportunitiesforphysicalprowessthanalifeofproductiveactivity。Thoughagooddealofthisprestigebelongstothegloryof\'command\'andextendseventoagreatemployeroflabour，theglamourofthesoldier\'s，hunter\'s，sportsman\'slifehangsinalessdegreeaboutallwhoseoccupations，howeverservile，keeptheminclosecontactwiththesebarbarianactivities。A
publican，aprofessionalcricketer，astud-groom，agamekeeper，enjoyamongtheircompanionsadignityderivedfromtheirassociationwiththesporting-life。
§；4。Ifphysicalrecreationsthuscarryprestige，soinalessdegreeandincertaingradesofsocietydointellectualrecreations。Onceasportsmanalonehadaclaimtoberegardedasagentleman。Onlyincomparativelymoderntimesdidtheassociationof\'ascholarandagentleman\'seemplausible。
Evennowprowessofthemindcanseldomcompeteinglorywithprowessofthebody。Thevaluationofachievementscurrentinourpublic-schoolspersists，thoughwithsomeabatement，amongallsortsandconditionsofmen。Butasmentalskillbecomesmoreandmorethemeansofattainingthatfinancialpowerwhichisthemoderninstrumentofpersonalglory，itrisesinsocialesteem。Asmanners，address，mentalabilityandknowledgemoreandmoredeterminepersonalsuccess，intellectualstudiesbecomeincreasinglyreputable。
Itmightappearatthefirstsightthatthehighestreputationwouldattachtothoseabilitiesandstudieswhichhadthehighestmediateutilityformoney-making。Butherethebarbarianstandardretainsadeflectinginfluence。Topossessmoneywhichyouhavenotmadestillcontinuestobefarmorehonorificthantomakemoney。Formoney-making，unlessitbebylootorgambling，involvesaddictiontoabusinesslifeinsteadofthelifeofaleisuredgentleman。Soitcomestopassthatstudiesarevaluedmorehighlyasdecorativeaccomplishmentsthanasutilities。Amanwhocanhaveaffordedtoexpendlongyearsinacquiringskillorknowledgewhichhasnopracticaluse，therebyannouncesmostdramaticallyhispossession，orhisfather\'spossession，ofanincomeenablinghimtoleadthelifeofanindependentgentleman。Thescaleofculture-valuesislargelydirectedbythisconsideration。Thusnotonlythechoiceofsubjectsbutthemodeoftreatmentintheeducationofthechildrenofthewell-to-dois，generallyspeaking，ininverseratiototheirpresumedutility。Theplaceofhonouraccordedtodeadlanguagesis，ofcourse，themostpatentexample。GreatasthemeritsofGreekandLatinmaybeforpurposesofintellectualandemotionaltraining，theirpredominanceisnotmainlydeterminedbytheirmerits，butbythetraditionalreputewhichhasmadethemthechoseninstrumentsforaparadeof\'useless\'culture。
Thoughsomeattemptismadeinrecenttimestoextractfromtheteachingofthe\'classics\'thefinerqualitiesofthe\'humanities\'whichtheycontain，thishasinvolvedarevoltagainstthepure\'scholarship\'whichsoughttoexcludeevensuchrefinedutilitiesandtoconfinethestudyoftheclassicstoagraceful，skilfulhandlingoflinguisticformsandapurelysuperficialtreatmentofthethoughtandknowledgecontainedinthechosenliterature。Itissignificantthatevento-day\'culture\'primarilycontinuestoimplyknowledgeoflanguagesandliteratureasaccomplishments，andthat，thoughmathematicsandnaturalsciencesentermorelargelyintotheacademiccurriculum，theycontinuetoranklowerasstudiesintheeducationofourwealthyclasses。
MostconvincinginitstestimonytotheformationofintellectualvaluesisthetreatmentofhistoryandmodernEnglishliterature。Althoughforallpurposesofcultureandutility，itmighthavebeensupposedthatthestudyofthethought，art，andeventsofourownnationandourowntimes，wouldbeofprimeimportance，virtuallynoplaceisgiventothesesubjects。
Historyandliterature，sofarastheyfigureatall，aretreatednotinrelationtothelifeoftoday，butasdeadmatter。Othersubjectsofstrictlyvitalutility，suchasphysiologyandhygiene，psychologyandsociology，findnoplacewhateverinthegeneraleducationofourschoolsanduniversities，occupyingatimidpositionas\'special\'subjectsincertainprofessionalcourses。
Pedagoguessometimespretendthatthisexclusionof\'utility\'testsforthesubjectsandthetreatmentinoursystemofeducationrestsuponsoundeducationalprinciples，inthat，ignoringtheshort-rangeutilitieswhichacommercialorother\'practical\'trainingdesiderates，theycontributetoadeeperandapurertrainingoftheintellectualfaculties。Buthavingregardtothepartplayedbytraditionandecclesiasticalauthorityintheestablishmentofpresent-dayeducationalsystems，itcannotbeadmittedthattheyhavemadeaseriouscasefortheappraisementofstudiesaccordingtotheirhumanvalues。Probablyourhighereducation，properlytested，wouldbefoundtocontainafarlargerwasteofintellectual\'efficiency\'
thanourfactorysystemofeconomicefficiency。Andthiswasteisprimarilyduetotheacceptanceandsurvivalofbarbarianstandardsofculture，imperfectlyadjustedtothemodernconditionsoflife，andchieflysustainedbythedesiretoemploythemindfordecorativeandrecreative，ratherthanforproductiveorcreativepurposes。Art，literatureandsciencesufferimmeasurablelossesfromthismisgovernmentofintellectuallife。
Thenetresultisthatthevastmajorityofthesonsanddaughtersevenofourwell-to-doclassesgrowupwithanexceedinglyfaultyequipmentofusefulknowledge，notrainedabilitytousetheirintellectsorjudgmentsfreelyandeffectively，andwithnostrongdesiretoattempttodoso。Theythusremainorbecomethedupesofshallowtraditions，orequallyshallownovelties，undertheguiseofscientific，philosophic，economicorpoliticalprincipleswhichtheyhaveneithertheenergyofmindnorthedesiretotest，butwhichtheypermittodirecttheirlivesandconductinmattersofsupremeimportancetothemselvesandothers。
Aseducationiscomingtotakealargerplaceasanorganisedoccupation，andmoretime，moneyandenergyareclaimedforit，thenecessityofarevaluationofintellectualvaluesonasanebasisofhumanismbecomesmoreexigentthanever。Forthereisadangerofanewbastardculturespringingup，theproductofablendingofthebarbarianculture，descendingbyimitationoftheupperclasses，withatoonarrowlyutilitarianstandardimprovisedtoconvertworking-classchildrenintocheapclerksandshopmen。
Ourhigh-schoolsandlocaluniversitiesarealreadyvictimstothismé；salliancebetween\'culture\'and\'business\'，andthetreatmentofnotafewstudies，historyandeconomicsinparticular，issubjecttonovelrisks。
§；5。Dilettantismistheintellectualequivalentofsport。Whatisthemoralequivalent？Thesporting-lifehasanethicsofitsown，theessenceofwhichliesineschewingobligationswithlegalorothercompulsoryexternalsanctions，infavourofavoluntarycodeembodyingthemutualfeelingsofmembersofasuperiorcaste。Inanaristocracyoftruesportsmenhonestyandsexual\'morality\'aredespisedasbourgeoisvirtues，whilejusticeistoocompulsoryandtooequalitarianforacceptance。Honourtakestheplaceofhonesty，goodformofmorals，fair-playandcharityofjustice。
Itisthecodeofthebarbariansupermanorchieftain，qualified，softenedandcomplicatedtosuittheconditionsofthemodernplay-life。Courageandendurance，fidelity，generosityandmercyarehisvirtues:temperance，modesty，humility，gratitude，havenoproperplaceinsuchacode，whichisindeedbaseduponafreeexerciseofthephysicalfunctionsforpersonalpleasureandglory。
Thehazardbelongingtoasportinglifemakesforsuperstition。Nobodyismorecrudelysuperstitiousthanthegambler，andeverybodytowhomlifeisprimarilyagameconceivesofitasproceedingbyruleswhichmaybeevadedortamperedwith。Thisaspectofthesportingcharactergavethepriestlycasteitschiefopportunitytogetpower。Sopietismwasgraftedonthesportsmanandthefighting-man，andreligionkeptaholdontherulingandpossessingclasses，adaptingitsmoralteachingtohiscase。
ThewidedivergenceofBritishChristianityfromtheteachingofthegospelsfindsitschiefexplanationinthisnecessityofadaptation。Itsdoctrinesanditsdisciplinehadtobemouldedsoastofitthecharacterandconductofpowerfulmen，whonotonlywouldrepudiateitsinnerspiritualteaching，butwhoselust，pride，crueltyandtreachery，thenaturaloutcomeoftheiranimallife，wereconstantlyleadingthemtoviolatetheverycodeofhonourtheyprofessed。Asindustryandproperty，peaceandorder，becamemoresettledandwide-spread，therecameupfrombelowapowerfulcommercialclass，whoseeconomicandsocialrequirementsevolvedamoralityinwhichtheso-calledpuritanvirtuesofindustry，thrift，honesty，temperance，sexualpurity，prevailed，andaChristianitydesignedprimarilytoevokeandtosustainthem。
Justastheintellectualcultureofthearistocracycametoclashwiththeutilitarianeducationofthebourgeoisandtoproducetheconfusingcompromisewhichatpresentprevails，sowiththedifferingethicsofthesametwoclasses。Theincursionofthewealthytradesmaninto\'highlife\'andofthelandedgentryintothe\'city\'hasvisiblybrokendowntheolderstandardsbothofmoralsandofmanners。Theprestigeofthesportingvirtueshasplayedhavocwiththesimplicityandausterityofthepuritanmoralsandcreeds，thoughitmayfairlybemaintainedthatthesanerutilitiesofthelatterhavetemperedtoaperceptibledegreethemoralsandmannersofthesportsman。Luxuriesandfrivolitiesofamorevariedorderhavelargelydisplacedtheoldersporting-life，introducingintoitsomeelementsofmoreintellectualskillandinterest，thoughitremainsprimarilydevotedtothepursuitofpleasurablesensuousfutilities。
But，thoughthemodesoftheleisurelifeareshifting，thedefinitelyparasiticattitudeandcareerwhichitembodiesremainunchanged。Thesenseofjusticeandofhumanityamongitsmembersisasdefectiveasever。Thistruthissometimesconcealedbythechangeinsocialareasthatistakingplace。Classhonourandcomradeshiphaveasomewhatwiderscopeastherangeofeffectiveintercourseexpands，andclasseswhichformerlywerewideapartcomepartiallytofusewithoneanother，orarebroughtwithintherangeofsympathy，asregardstheirmoresympatheticmembers。SointercourseuponafairlyequalbasiscantakeplaceinsuchacountryasEnglandbetweenmostpersonswhohavereachedacertainlevelofrefinementofliving。
Thiscertainlyimpliessometransfusionofmoralstandards，theunionofcommonsentimentsregardingindustryandpropertywiththedownwardspreadofamodifiedconceptionofasportinglife。Indeed，imitationhasgoneacertainwaytowardsinfectingallthestablergradesoftheworking-classeswiththisblendofbarbarianandpuritanvaluations。Whilethelargerpecuniarymeansandleisurewhichtheypossesshasintroducedintotheirstandardoflifesportinghabitslargelyimitativeofthefullyleisuredaristocracy，ithasimplantedhabitsof\'respectability\'asthecontributionofthebourgeoistypeimmediatelyabovetheminthesocialscale。
§；6。Butwhenwedipdownbelowthebourgeoisandtheregularworking-classeswhichhehasdrilledinindustry，wefindalowerleisureclasswhosevaluationsandwaysoflivingformamostinstructiveparodyoftheupperleisureclass。Bothincountryandtownlifethesetypesappear。Theyinclude\'gypsies\'，tramps，poachersandothervagabonds，whohaveneverbeenenlistedinthearmyofindustry，orhavedesertedinfavourofa\'free\'lifeofhazard，beggaryandplunder。Intownsnaturalproclivitiesormisfortuneaccountforconsiderablegroupsofcasualworkers，professionaloramateurthievesandprostitutes，street-sellers，corner-men，kepthusbands，andotherparasiteswhoareaburdenontheworking-classes。Alikeincountryandintown，thesemenpractise，sofarascircumstancesallow，thesamehabitsandexhibitthesamecharacterastheleisureclassatthetop。Thefighting，sporting，roving，generous，reckless，wastefultraitsarealldiscernible，thesameunaffectedcontemptfortheworker，thesameclasscamaraderie，oftenwithaspecialcodeofhonour，thesamesexlicenseandjovialityofmanners。Eventheirintelligenceandhumour，theirverymodesofspeech，arethehalf-imitative，half-originalreplicaofhighlifeasitshowsintherace-course，intheclubsmoke-room，ortheflashmusichall。Oftentheparasitesandhangers-ontoupper-classsportsandrecreations，theseformalargeandgrowingclassofourpopulation，andtheirwithdrawalfromallindustrythatcanbetermedproductive，coupledwiththedebasedmodeofconsumptionwhichtheypractise，countheavilyintheaggregateofsocialwaste。
§；7。Astheopportunitiesofleisureandofsomesurplusincomebeyondthecurrentacceptedstandardofclasscomfortbecomemoregeneral，thissympatheticimitationofrecreations，educationandmorals，undoubtedlymakesforanationalstandardisationoflife，thoughtheenormousdiscrepanciesineconomicresourcesgreatlylimittheefficacyofsuchatendencytounity。Buttheapparentgaininhumanitythussuggestedislargelycounterworkedbythestrongersenseofnationalandespeciallyofracialcleavagewhichhascomewithmodernworldintercourse。Ifclassbarriersofconduct，educationandfeelingaresomewhatweakeningintheforemostEuropeannations，aclearerandintenserrealisationofnationalandracialbarrierstakestheirplace。Everymodificationofclassexclusiveness，andofeconomicplunder，uponthesmallerscale，iscompensatedbythiswiderracialexclusiveness，withitsaccompanyingparasitism。
ThecivilisedWesternworldiscomingmoreconsciouslytomoulditspracticalpolicy，politicalandeconomic，anditssentimentsandtheories，uponawhiteexploitationofthelowerandthebackwardpeoples。Imperialismisdisplacing，oratpresentiscrossing，classsupremacy，andisevolvinganintellectualismandamoralsaccommodatedtotheneedsofthisnewsocialcleavage。ItismovingtowardsanotdistantepochinwhichWesternwhitenationsmay，asregardstheirmeansoflivelihood，bemainlydependentuponthelabourofregimentedlowerpeoplesinvariousdistantportionsoftheglobe，allormostmembersofthedominantpeoplesenjoyingalifeofcomparativepleasureandleisureandacollectivesenseofpersonalsuperiorityastherulersoftheearth。
Thatstandardsofrecreation，educationandmorals，thusformedandtransformed，arelikelytocontainenormous\'wastes\'intheirdirectandindirectbearinguponeconomiclife，isobvious。Howfarthiswasteistobeimputedtoimitationoftheprestige-possessinghabitsof\'theleisuredclass\'，howfarto\'originalsin\'ortheerrorsorexcessesnaturaltoallsortsandconditionsofmen，itisnotpossibletoascertain。Butitwillbeevidentthatinthesehighersatisfactions，towhichanincreasing\'surplus\'ofwealth，leisureandenergycanbedevoted，willbefoundthelargestwastes。Fortheconventionalexpenditureembeddedinthesestrataofthevariousclassstandardswillbelargelydirectedbymotiveswhichareverylooselyrelatedtoanyrealstandardoforganicwelfare。Oneneednotexaggeratethisexpenditureoftimeormoney，ordeemitwhollyunproductive。
Itmayevenbeconcededthatfewofthepursuitsofpleasurearewhollydestituteofbenefit，norareprestigeandtheimitationitengenderswhollyvalueless。Butsuchpracticescontainmuchthatisobsolete，incongruousorindigestible，muchthatisactivelyinjurious，bothtotheindividualandtosociety。Regardedfromthestandpointofpecuniaryexpenditure，themisdirectionofthesurplusincomeintoemptyordepravedmodesofrecreation，culture，religionandcharityisthelargestofalleconomicwastes。Coulditbesetforthinveraciousaccounts，itsenormitywouldimpressallreflectiveminds。Howsmallthetotalyieldofhumanwelfareorevenofcurrentpleasurablesatisfactionfromtheidletravel，racing，hunting，motoring，golfing，yachting，bettingandgambling，incomparisonwiththehumangainfromtheworkandartsofwhichtheyarethefutilesubstitutes!Considerthedamagetoagriculture，thesheerlossofhumanenergy，theselfishness，sensualityandbrutalityincidentaltomanysports，theempty-mindedness，obtusenessofintelligenceandinsensatepride，theshuttingofthesensesandtheemotionstomostofthefinerandnoblerscenesinthespectacleofnatureandthedramaofhumanity，thatarethenaturalandnecessaryconsequencesof\'asportinglife。\'
Orcouldoneaccuratelyanalysethecostsofdilettantism，shamculture，withitsmonstrousperversionsofproductiveenergyinthefieldsofpedagogy，art，science，andliterature，inadescendingscaleoffrivolousnessordepravity，astheyseizebyimitationtheawakeningmindofeverlargerstrataofourpopulations!Butevenworsethanshamintellectualismistheshammoralitywhichtricksitselfoutinpietisticformulasandcharitablepractices，soastoevadeobediencetotheplainlawsofhumanbrotherhoodandsocialjusticeinthisworld。
Thewidestanddeepestimplicationsofthisparasiticlifeofluxuryandleisure，thesubstitutionofrecreationforartandexercise，ofdilettantismforthelifeofthought，ofpietism，andcharityforhumanfellowship，liebeyondthescopeofourformalenquiry。Weareconcernedwiththemprimarilyasaffectingeconomicproductionandconsumption。Sport，dilettantismandcharityareforuscharacteristicproductsofmal-distributionseizingthatsurplus-incomewhichistheeconomicnutrimentofsocialprogress，andapplyingittoevolveacomplicatedlifeoffutilefrivolitiesforasmallleisuredclasswhodamagebytheircontagiousexampleandincitementthestandardsoftheworkingmembersofthesocietyinwhichtheyexercisedominion。CHAPTERXII:THEHUMANLAWOF
DISTRIBUTION
§；1。Inseekingatoncetoestablishandapplytoindustryastandardofhumanvalue，wehavetakenforourconcretesubject-mattertheaggregateofmarketablegoodsandservicesthatconstitutetherealincomeofthenation。Thisrealwealth，distributedinincomeamongthevariousmembersofthecommunity，wesubjectedtoadoubleanalysis，tracingitbackwardsthroughtheprocessesofitsproduction，forwardintoitsconsumption。
Someoftheactivitiesofitsproductionwerecognisedasbeinginthemselvesinteresting，pleasant，educativeorotherwiseorganicallyuseful:otherswefoundtobeuninteresting，painful，depressingorotherwiseorganicallycostly。Asimilardivergenceofhumanvalueappearedintheconsumptionofthoseformsofwealth。Somesortsandquantitiesofconsumptionwerefoundconducivetothemaintenanceandfurtheranceofhealthylife，bothpleasantandprofitable。Othersortsandqualitiesofconsumptionwerefoundwastefulorinjurioustothelifeoftheconsumersandofthecommunity。
Thegeneralresultofthisdoubleanalysismaybesummarisedinthefollowingtabularform。
WEALTH
PRODUCTION
Humanutility——Art&；Exercise；LabourHumancost——Toil；Mal-productionCONSUMPTION
Humanutility——Needs；AbundanceHumancost——Satiety；Mal-consumptionIntheordinaryeconomicaccount\'costs\'appearentirelyontheProductionsideoftheaccount，\'utility\'entirelyontheConsumptionside。Productionisregardednotasgoodordesirableinitself，butonlyasameanstowardsanend，Consumption。Ontheotherhand，allpartsofConsumptionareregardedasinthemselvesdesirableandgood，andareassessedasUtilitiesaccordingtotheworthwhichcurrentdesires，expressedinpurchasingpower，setuponthem。
Ourhumanvaluationrefusestoregardworkasameremeanstoconsumption。
Itfindslifeandwelfareinthehealthyfunctioningofproductiveactivities，aswellasintheprocessesofrepairandgrowthwhichformsoundconsumption。
IfallproductioncouldbereducedtoArtandExercise，thecreativeandthere-creativefunctions，allconsumptiontothesatisfactionofphysicalandspiritualneeds，weshouldappeartohavereachedanidealeconomy，inwhichtherewouldbenohumancostsandamaximumamountofhumanutility。
Theconditionsofacompleteindividuallifewouldseemtobeattained。
Butwearenotconcernedwithasocietyinwhichcompletenessoftheindividuallifeisthesoleend，butwithasocietyinwhichthedesires，purposesandwelfareoftheindividualsarecomprisedintheachievementofacommonlife。ForthisreasonIhaveincludedundertheheadofUtilityontheProductivesideofouraccount，notonlytheArtandExercisewhicharedirectlyconducivetoindividualwell-being，butaquantumofLabourwhichrepresentstheeconomicmeasureoftheinter-dependency，orsolidarity，oftheso-calledindividuals。Suchlabouristheso-called\'sacrifice\'
requiredof\'individuals\'intheinterestofthesocietytowhichtheybelong。Totheindividualistitappearsadistortionofthefreefulldevelopmentofhisnature，aninterferencewithhisperfectlife。Butitis，ofcourse，neithersacrificenordistortion。Fortheso-calledindividualisnowise，exceptinphysicalstructure，1completelydividedfromhisfellows。Heisasocialbeingandthissocialnaturedemandsrecognitionandexpressionineconomicprocesses。Itrequireshimtoengageinsomespecialworkwhichhasforitsdirectendthewelfareofsociety，inadditiontotheworkofusinghisownpowersforhisownpersonalends。Howfarthisroutinelabourforsocietycanbetakenintohisconceptionofhishumannature，andsobecomeasourceofpersonalsatisfaction，isaquestionweshalldiscusslateron。Atpresentitwillsufficetorecognisethateachman\'sfaircontributiontotheroutinelabouroftheworld，thoughirksometohim，isnotinjuriousbutserviceabletohis\'human\'nature。Thusinterpreted，itstandsontheutility，notonthecost，sideoftheaccount。Itmustbedistinguishedfromitsexcess，whichwehereterm\'toil\'，andfromwork，whichwhetherfromanabuseofthecreativefacultyorofsocialcontrol，isbadanddegradinginitsnatureandisheretermedmal-production。
Asimilardistinctionbetweenthenarrowlypersonalandthebroadersocialinterpretationofwelfareisapplicableontheconsumptionside。
Itisclearlynotenoughthattheincomewhichistofurnishconsumptionshouldsufficeonlytomakeprovisionforthesatisfactionofthematerialandspiritualneedsoftheindividualorevenofhisfamily。Theexpenditureofeverymanshouldcontainamargin——whichIherecall\'abundance\'——
fromwhichhemaycontributevoluntarilytothegoodofothers。Therewillbepublicneedsoremergencies，whicharenotproperlycoveredbyStateservicesbutremainacalluponthepublicspiritofpersonsofdiscernmentandhumanity。Therearealsothecallsofhospitalityandcomradeship，andthewiderclaimofcharity，thewillinghelptothoseinneed，acharitythatisspontaneous，notorganised，thatdegradesneitherhimwhogivesnorhimwhoreceives，becauseitisthenaturalexpressionofaspiritofhumanbrotherhood。Forthestingalikeofcondescensionandofdegradationwouldberemovedfromcharity，whenbothpartiesfeelthatsuchactsofgivingareanagreeableexpressionofaspiritoffellowship。Fromtheconsumptionwhichisthusappliedtothesatisfactionofsoundpersonalneeds，orwhichoverflowsin\'abundance\'tomeettheneedsofothers，wedistinguishsharplythatexcessivequantityofconsumption，whichinourTableranksas\'Satiety\'，andthosebasemodesofconsumptionwhichintheirpoisonousreactionsonpersonalandsocialwelfarestrictlycorrespondtothebaseformsofproduction。
§；2。Sucharethegenerallinesofdemarcationbetweenthestrictlybusinessandthehumanvaluationoftheproductiveandconsumptiveprocesses。
WenowperceivehowcloseistheresemblanceofthelawsofhumanvaluationasappliedtothetwosidesoftheequationofWealth。Thissimilarityis，ofcourse，nochancecoincidence:itinheresintheorganicnatureofsocietyandofindividuallife。But，inordertoproceedwithourmainpurpose，theexpressionoftheeconomicincomeintermsofhumanincome，wemustbringthetwosidesoftheenquiryintocloserunion。Wecanthusgetafairsurveyofthecurrentlifeofindustryfromthestandpointofwealthandwaste，healthanddisease。Sofarasournationalincome，the£；2，000，000，000ofgoodsandservices，areproducedbyactivities，whichintheirnatureanddistributioncanbeclassedasArt，ExerciseandSocialLabour，andareconsumedinwaysconducivetothesatisfactionofindividualandsocialNeeds，ourindustrialsocietyissound。
Probablythegreaterpartofourincomeisthusmadeandspent。Thenecessityofattendingmorecloselytothedefectsthantothesuccessesofthepresentsystemmustnotleadustodisparagethelatter。