1。Collectiveorcooperativeconsumptionoutsidethehomeorfamilyisofcourseincreasing。Notonlyhavewemunicipalsuppliesforpub1icuse，e。g。，schools，libraries，museums，parks，baths，lighting，etc。，butmanyformsofprivateexpenditureofincomeoneducational，recreative，philanthrophicandothercooperativemodesofconsumption。
2。ForthefullestandmostrecentexpositionofthistheoryseeMr。
J。M。Robertson\'sTheEvolutionofStatesWatts&；Co。。CHAPTERX:CLASSSTANDARDSOF
§；1。Wemaynowapplythesegeneralconsiderationsregardingtheevolutionofwantstoclassandindividualstandardsofconsumption。Inaconcreteclassstandardofconsumptionwemayconvenientlydistinguishthreedeterminantfactors:1st。Theprimaryorganicfactor，theelementsinconsumptionimposedbygeneralorparticularconditionsofphysicalenvironment，suchassoil，climate，inrelationtophysicalneeds。2nd。
Theindustrialfactor，themodificationsinorganicneedsduedirectlyorindirectlytoconditionsofwork。3rd。Theconventionalfactor，thoseelementsinastandardofconsumptionnotbaseddirectlyuponconsiderationsofphysicaloreconomicenvironmentbutimposedbysocialcustom。
Sofarasthefirstfactorisconcerned，weareforthemostpartintheregionofmaterialnecessariesinwhich，aswehavealreadyseen，theorganicsecuritiesforhumanutilityarestrongest。Whereanypopulationhasformanygenerationsbeensettledinalocality，itmustadaptitselfintwowaystothephysicalconditionsofthatlocality。Itschiefconstituentsoffood，clothing，shelter，etc。，mustbeaccommodatedtoallthemorepermanentandimportantconditionsofsoil，climate，situationandofthefloraandfaunaofthecountry。Atropicalpeoplecannotbegreatmeat-eatersoraddictedtostrongdrinks，thoughthematerialsforbothhabitsmaybeabundant。Anarcticpeople，ontheotherhand，mustfindinanimalfatsaprincipalfood，andintheskinsofanimalsaprincipalarticleofclothing。
Inacountrywhereearthquakesfrequentlyoccur，thematerialsandstructureofthehousesmustbelight。Inthesamecountrythepeopleofthemountains，thevalleys，theplains，thesea-shores，willbefoundwithnecessarydifferencesintheirfundamentalstandardofconsumption。Itis，indeed，self-evidentthatphysicalenvironmentmustexerciseanimportantselectiveandrejectivepowerrepresentedinthematerialstandardofconsumption。Sofarasmancanmodifyandalterthephysicalenvironment，asbydrainage，forestry，orthedestructionofnoxiousanimalsorbacteria，hemaytothatextentreleasehisstandardofconsumptionforthisregionalcontrol。
Primitiveman，again，andevenmostmenincomparativelyadvancedcivilisations，areconfinedforthechiefmaterialsoffood，shelterandothernecessaries，totheresourcesoftheircountryorlocality。Theymustaccommodatetheirdigestionsandtheirtastestothefoodsthatcanberaisedconvenientlyandinsufficientquantitiesintheneighbourhood:theymustbuildtheirhousesandmaketheirdomesticandotherutensilsoutofthematerialproductswithineasyreach。Theearlyevolutionofastandardofnecessaryconsumption，workingunderthiscloseeconomyoftrialanderror，appearstoguaranteeafree，natural，instinctiveselectionoforganicallysoundconsumables。
Theprimaryphysicalcharacteristicsofacountry，alsoofcourse，affectwithvaryingdegreesofurgencythoseelementsinastandardofconsumptionnotdirectlyendowedwithstrongsurvivalvalue，thosewhichwecallconveniences，comforts，luxuries。Themodesandmaterialsofbodilyadornment，thestylesofdomesticandotherarchitecture，religiousceremonies，formsofrecreation，willevidentlybedeterminedinadirectmannerbyclimaticandotherphysicalconsiderations。
Recentcivilisation，withitsrapidextensivespreadofcommunications，anditsequallyrapidandvariousexpansionoftheartsofindustry，hasbroughtaboutaninterferencewiththisnaturaleconomywhichhasdangersaswellasadvantages。Theswiftexpansionofcommercebringsgreatquantitiesoffoodsandotherconsumablesfromremotecountries，andplacesthematthedisposalofpopulationsunderconditionswhichgivenoadequatesecurityfororganicutilityofconsumption。Underaneconomyofnaturalselectionexoticsarebyrightsuspect，atanyrateuntiltimehastriedthem。Theincorporationofarticlessuchasteaandtobaccoinourpopularconsumptionhastakenplaceunderconditionswhichaffordnoproperguaranteeoftheirindividualutility，oragainstthebadreactionstheymaycauseinthewholecomplexstandardsofconsumption。
Thebackstrokeofthiscommercialexpansionisseeninsuchoccurrencesasthedeforestationofgreattractsofcountryandthealterationoftheclimaticcharacter，withitseffectsuponthelivesoftheinhabitants。
Butthoughcertainerrorsandwastesattendtheseprocessesofcommercialismandindustrialism，theymustnotbeexaggerated。Thereisnoreasontoholdthatmankindingeneralhasbeensodeeplyandfirmlyspecialisedinneedsandsatisfactionsbylocalphysicalconditionsthathecannotadvantageouslyavailhimselfofthematerialproductsofawiderenvironment。
Thoughthedigestiveandassimilativeapparatusmaynotbesoadaptableasthebrain，thereisnogroundforholdingthatconformityduringmanygenerationstoaparticularformofdietprecludestheeasyadoptionofexoticelementsoftencontainingbetterfood-propertiesinmoreassimilableforms。AChinesepopulation，habituatedtorice，canquicklyrespondinhigherphysicalefficiencytoawheatdiet，noristhefactthatbananasareatropicalfruitdetrimentaltotheirvalueasfoodforLondoners。
Howfarthepurelyempiricalwayinwhichfoodsandotherelementsinanecessarystandardhavebeenevolvedcanbeadvantageouslycorrectedorsupplementedbyscientifictests，isaquestionremainingfordiscussionaftertheotherfactorsinstandardsofconsumptionhavebeenbroughtunderinspection。
§；2。Industrialconditions，themselvesofcourselargelydeterminedbyphysicalenvironment，affectclassandindividualconsumptioninveryobviousways。Eachoccupationimposesontheworker，andindirectlyuponallthemembersofhisfamily，certainmethodsofliving。Physiologicallawsprescribemanyofthosemethods。Aparticularsortofoutputofmuscularornervousenergydemandsaparticularsortofdiettoreplacetheexpenditure。
Theproperdietofanagriculturallabourer，amilloperativeandaminer，willhavecertainrecogniseddifferences。Muscularandmental，activeandsedentary，monotonousandinterestingwork，willinvolvedifferentamountsandsortsofnourishment，anddifferentexpendituresforleisureoccupations。
Thesedifferenceswillextendbothtothenecessariesandthehigherelementsinstandardsofconsumption。Industrialrequirementswillstampthemselveswithmoreorlessforceandexactitudeuponeachoccupation。Ananalysisofbudgetswouldshowthatthestandardoftheclergymanwasnotthatofthemerchantorevenofthedoctor，andthatthesamefamilyincomewouldbedifferentlyapplied。Thestockbrokerwillnotlivelikethemill-owner，northejournalistliketheshopkeeper。Sorightthroughthevariousgradesofworkers。Theskilledmechanic，thefactoryhand，therailwayman，theclerk，theshop-assistant，thelabourer，willallhavetheirrespectivestandards，mouldedormodifiedbytheconditionsoftheirwork:theirneedsandtastesforfood，clothing，recreation，etc。，willbeaffectedinsubtlewaysbythatwork。
\'Productive\'consumptionisthetermgivenbyclassicalpoliticaleconomytothatportionofconsumptionappliedsoastomaintainorimprovetheefficiencyoflabour-powerintheworkerandhisfamily。Necessariesalonewereheldabsolutelyproductive，conveniencesandcomfortsweredubious，luxurieswereunproductive。Regardedevenfromthecommercialstandpoint，itwasashallowanalysis，confinedtoapresentutilisationofimmediatelyusefulcommodities，andignoringthereactionsuponfutureproductivityofariseineducationandrefinement。Itbelongedtoanagebeforetheeconomyofhighwagesorthemoralstimuliofhopeandanintelligentoutlookuponlifehadwonanyconsiderablerecognitionas\'productive\'stimuli。
Butfromthestandpointofouranalysisthedefectofthistreatmentisadeeperone。Forusthedistinctionbetweenproductiveandunproductiveconsumptionisasfundamentalasintheoldereconomictheory。Thedifferenceliesintheconceptionofthe\'product\'thatistogiveameaningto\'productive\'。
Productiveconsumption，accordingtotheoldereconomictheory，wasmeasuredbytheyieldofeconomicproductivity，accordingtoourtheorybytheyieldofvitalwelfare。Thetwonotmerelyarenotidentical，theymayoftenbeconflictingvalues。
Adietproductiveofgreatmuscularenergyforanavvy，foundrymanordrayman，mayproduceacoarsetypeofanimalismwhichprecludestheformationofahighernervousstructureandthefinerqualitiesofcharacterthatareitsspiritualcounterpart。Theindustrialconditionsofmanyproductiveemploymentsarenotoriouslysuchastoimpairthephysiqueandthemuscleoftheworkersengagedinthem，andthereisnogroundforassumingthatthehabitsofconsumption，conducingtoincreasedproductivityinsuchtrades，carryanynetfreightofhumanutility。
Norisitonlyinmanuallabourthattheindustrialinfluencesmouldingastandardofconsumptionmaydamageitshumanquality。Muchsedentaryintellectualworkinvolvessimilarlyinjuriousreactionsuponmodesofliving。Thephysicalabusesofathleticism，stimulantsanddrugs，areveryprevalentresultsofdisorderedcompetitioninintellectualemployments。
But，asbadelementsinstandardsofexpenditure，theintellectualexcesses，thefatuousordegradingformsofliterature，drama，art，music，whichthislifegenerates，areperhapsevenmoreinjurious。Oneoftheheaviesthumancostsofanover-intellectuallifetodayisits\'culture\'。
§；3。Whenwecometo\'conventional\'elementsinstandardsofcomfort，weenteraregionwhichappearstoadmitanindefiniteamountofwasteanderror。
Theveryterm\'conventional\'，setasitisinoppositionto\'natural\'，indeed，suggestsanabsenceoforganicutility。Wehearof\'conventionalnecessaries\'eveninthelowestlevelsofworking-classexpenditure。I
presumethattheexpenditureinbeer，tobacco，uponspreesorfunerals，orupondecorativeclothing，wouldbeplacedinthiscategory。
Fromthepurelyeconomicstandpointsuchexpenditurehasbeenaccountedeitherwaste，or，evenworse，\'disutility\'。
Itisoftenarguedthatalabouringfamilyon21s。perweekcouldbekeptinphysicalefficiency，ifeverypennywereexpendedeconomicallyinobtaining\'organicvalue\'。Thisistheidealofacertainorderofadvocatesofthriftandtemperance。Wholegenerationsofeconomistshaveaccumulatedeasyvirtuebypreachingthisrigorouseconomyfortheworking-classes。
Ithasalwaysseemedpossibletosqueezeoutofthestandardofanyworking-classenoughoftheconventionalorsuperfluoustojustifytheopinionthatmostofthemiseryofthepooristheirownfault，inthesensethat，iftheymadeacompletelyrationaluseoftheirwages，theycouldsupportthemselvesindecency。Theamountspentbytheworkersondrinkalonewould，itisoftencontended，makeampleprovisionagainstmostoftheworstemergenciesofworking-classlife。
Nowthereareseveralcommentstobemadeonthisattitudetowardsconventionalexpenditure。1。Asoneascendsabovetheprimaryorganicneeds，theevolutionofdesiresbecomeslessreliableandmorecomplicated:theelementofwillandchoiceandthereforeofchoosingbadly，becomeslarger。
Somecondimentsareusefulforassistingthedigestionofprimaryfoods，butitiseasiertomakemistakesincondimentsthaninstaplefoods。Sowithallthehigherandmorecomplexwants。Asonerisesabovetheprimerequisitesandconveniences，organicinstincts，ortastesdirectlydependentonthem，playadiminishingpartasfaithfuldirectorsofconsumption。
Thisnaturalguidancedoesnotindeeddisappear。Theevolutionofahumanbeingwithfinernervousstructure，andwithhigherintellectualandmoralneedsanddesiresrelatedtothatstructure，isafairlycontinuousprocess。
Thefinestandbest-balancednaturesthuscarryintotheirmorecomplexmodesofsatisfactionatruepsycho-physicalstandardofutility。Butitisalreadyadmittedthattheliabilitytogowrongisfargreaterinthosemodesofexpenditurewhicharenotdirectlycontributorytosurvival。Thisisthecase，whetherindividualtastesorsomeacceptedconventiondeterminestheexpenditure。
Thisissogenerallyrecognisedthatitislikelythattheorganicutilityofpersonaltastesontheonehand，customandconventionontheother，hasbeenundulydisparaged。Thetemperofeconomistsinassessingvalueshasbeentooshort-sightedandtooinelastic。Agooddealofpersonalexpenditurethatiswastefulorworsewhentakenonitsseparatemeritsmaybejustifiedasarudeexperimentalprocessbywhichapersonlearnswisdomandfindshissoul。Whatistrueofcertainfreakishpersonalconductisprobablytruealsoofthoseconventionalpractices，inwhichwholesocietiesorclassesconducttheircollectiveexperimentsintheartofliving。
Atoorigorouseconomy，whetherdirectedbyinstinctorreason，whichshouldrulewithminuteexactitudetheexpenditureofindividualsorsocieties，inordertoextractfromallexpenditureofincomethemaximumofseenutilities，wouldbeboundtosinagainstthatlawofprogresswhichdemandsanadequateprovisionfortheseexperimentalprocessesinlifewhich，takenbythemselves，appearsowasteful。
Socialpsychologybringsamoreliberalandsympatheticunderstandingtobearuponsomeofthepracticeswhichtoashortsightedeconomistappearmerewastefulextravagance，destituteofutilityanddisplacingsomeimmediatelyserviceableconsumption。Letmetakesomenotableexamplesfromcurrentworking-classexpenditure。Thelavishexpenditureuponbank-holidays，inwhichlargeclassesofwage-earners\'blow\'alargeproportionofanysurplustheypossessbeyondthesubsistencewage，isthesubjectofcausticcriticismbythriftymiddle-classfolk。Butmaynotthisholidayspirit，withacertainabandonitcontains，beregardedasa\'natural\'andevenwholesomereactionagainstthecrampingpressureofroutineindustrialismandthenormalrigourofaclosedomesticeconomy？Itmaynot，indeed，beanideallygoodmodeofreaction，mayevencontainelementsofpositivedetriment，andyetmaybetheventforvaluableorganicinstinctsseekingafterthosequalitiesoffreedom，joyandpersonaldistinctionthatareessentialtoalifeworthliving。1
Ortakethegravestofalldefectsofworking-classexpenditure，thedrink-bill。Thiscraving，hostileasitistothephysicalandmorallifeofman，isnotunderstood，andthereforecannotbeeffectivelyeradicated，unlessdueaccountistakenofcertainemotionalimplications。Theyieldingtodrinkisnotmerebrutality。Brutesdonotdrink。Itisinsomeparttheresponsetoaninstincttoescapefromtheimprisonmentinanarrowcrampingenvironmentwhichaffordsnoscopeforaspirationandachievement。
Itmayindeedbesaidthatthedrinkerdoesnotaspireanddoesnotachieve。
Heisdoubtlessthevictimofanillusion。Butitisacertaindimsenseofahigherfreerlifethatlureshimon。\'Elevation\'iswhatissought。
\'KingsmaybeblessedbutTamwasgloriousO\'era\'theillso\'lifevictorious。\'
Ortakestillanotheritemofworking-classexpenditurefrequentlycondemnedasatypicalexampleofextravagance，therelativelylargeexpenseoffunerals。
Isthistobedismissedoffhandasmerewantonwaste？Amorehumaninterpretationwillfindinitotherelementsofmeaning。Intheordinarylifeof\'thecommonpeople\'thereislittlescopeforthatpersonaldistinctionwhichamongtheupperclassesfindsexpressioninsomanyways。Thequietworking-manorwomanhasneverforabriefhourthroughalonglifetimestoodoutamonghisfellows，orgatheredroundhimthesympatheticattentionofhisneighbours。
Isitwhollyunintelligibleorregrettablethatthosewhocareforhimshouldwishtogivethisnarrow，thwarted，obscurepersonalityamomentofdignityandglory？Thesumoflifeisaddedupinthispompofreckoning，andthefamilyisgatheredintoafocusofneighbourlyattentionandgood-feeling，theoutwardemblemsofhonouraredisplayed，andawholerangeofhumanemotionsfindsexpression。Suchexcessasexistsmustbeunderstoodasanaturalfruitofthoseaspiringqualitiesofpersonalitywhich，thwartedintheirnaturalandhealthygrowthbynarrownessofopportunity，cravethistraditionaloutlet。
Infact，themorecloselywestudytheconventionalfactorsinconsumption，thelessareweabletodismissthemoutofhandasmereextravaganceorwaste。Someorganicimpulse，halfphysical，halfpsychical，nearlyalwaysentersintoeventheleastdesirableelements。Amarginofexpenditure，eitherconventionalorexpressingindividualcaprice，2whichservestoevokepleasure，tostirinterest，andabovealltosatisfyasenseofpersonaldignity，eventhoughattheexpenseofsomemoreobviousandimmediateutilities，maybejustifiedbyconsiderationsofindividualandsocialprogress。
§；4。Suchconsiderationsmustnot，however，bepressedveryfarinthedefenceevenofthemostfirmly-rootedelementsofconventionalconsumption。For，thoughthedeeperorganicforceswhichworkthrough\'naturalselection\'musteliminatetheworstormostinjuriousmodesofexpenditurefromthepermanentstandardofaraceorclass，itmayleaveelementsfraughtwithgravedanger。Forneithertheanimalnorthespiritualnatureofmanisequippedwithaselectiveapparatusfortestingaccuratelyforpurposesoforganicwelfaretheinnumerablefreshapplicantsfor\'consumption\'whichappearastheevolutionofwants，ontheonehand，andofindustriesupontheother，becomesmorecomplexandmorerapid。
Anextremeinstancewillenforcemymeaning。TotakeaRedIndianoraBantufromanaturalandsocialenvironmentrelativelysimpleandstaple，andtoplungehimsuddenlyintotheswirlofamodernWesterncitylifeistocourtphysicalandmoraldisaster。Why？Becausethepressuresofanimaldesiresortheemotionsofprideandcuriosity，whichwererelatedbyeffective\'taboos\'intheprimitivelifefromwhichheisdrawn，nowworktheirwillunchecked。Forthe\'taboos\'ofcivilisedsocietyarebothill-adaptedtotheemotionaltextureofhisnature，andintheirnoveltyandcomplexityarenotadequatelycomprehended。Butevenforthosebornandbredintheenvironmentofarapidlychangingcivilisationthereareevidentlygreathazards。Notonlyindividualbutwidelycollectiveexperimentsinnoveltiesofconsumptionwilloftenbeinjurious。Thismaybeexplainedinthefirstinstanceasduetotheperversionordefectiveworkingofthe\'instincts\'originallydesignedtoprotectandpromotethelifeoftheindividualandthespecies。
Ananimallivinguponwhatmaybetermedunmodifiednatureispossessedofinstinctswhichmakepoisonousplantsoranimalsrepellenttoitstaste。
Amanlivinginahighlymodifiedenvironmentfindssuchshredsofinstinctivetastesashepossessesinadequatetotheriskofrejectingthefabricatedfoodsbroughtfromremotequartersoftheearthtotempthisappetite。
Ifthisholdsofarticlesoffood，whereerrorsmaybemortalandwheresomeprotection，howeverinsufficient，isstillfurnishedbythepalateandthestomach，stillmoredoesitholdofthe\'higher\'tastescomparativelyrecentlyimplantedincivilisedman。\'Badtastes\'thusmayintroducetheuseofbooksorartthatdisturbthemindwithoutinformingit，recreationsthatdistractanddissipateourpowerswithoutrecreatingandrestoringthem。Nordoesthe\'socialorganism\'furnishreliablecheckswhichshallstopthespreadofindividualerrorsintoconventionalconsumption。
§；5。Thequestionofindividualerrorsandwastesintheprocessofevolvingstandardsofconsumptionmustnotdetainus。Forthoughitrightlyfallswithinthescopeofafullyelaboratedvaluationofconsumption，itmustnotbeallowedtointrudeintoourmoremodestendeavourtodiscusstheseveralgradesofwantswhichcompriseaclassstandardofconsumption。
Therelativesizeofthewastesordefectsoftheconventionalfactorsinaclassstandardwillnotindeeddependuponthemereadditionoftheperversionoftheseparatechoicesofitsindividuals。Foraconventionisnotproducedbyamerecoincidenceofseparateactionsofindividualdesire。
Itmaybewellheretoreverttothedistinctionwhichwefoundconvenienttoemployinouranalysisofthehumanvalueofdifferentformsofwork，viz。，thedistinctionbetweencreationandimitation。Hereitwilltakeshapeinanenquiryastothewaysinwhichnewwantsarediscoveredandpassintoconventionaluse。Letustakeforanexamplethecaseofamedicinewhichhasbecomearecognisedremedyforadisease。Amonganimalsor\'primitive\'
manthehabitofeatingacurativeherbmayberegardedasduetoanorganicinstinctcommontoeachmemberoftheherdorgroup。Suchconsumption，however，wouldnotreallyfallwithinthecategoryofour\'conventionalconsumption\'。Itwouldineffectbeconfinedtoalimitednumberofarticlescontainingstrongelementsof\'survivalvalue\'，inapre-economicperiod，though，assoonastribalsocietybegantoevolvethemedicineman，hisprescriptionswouldaddmanyelementsofwasteanderror。Buttheconsumableswhoseoriginwearenowconsideringmustberegardedasinvolvinginventionordiscovery，andconsciousimitationoradoptionbythegroup。Unlesswesupposethatthechewingofcinchonabarkhadabackingofinstinctiveadaptation，andsopassedbytraditionintolateragesofIndianlife，wemustholdthatthefirstbeginningsoftheuseofquinineasacureforintermittentfeversinSouthAmericaweredueeithertochanceortoearlyempiricismintreatment。
Someperson，probablyenjoyingdistinctioninhistribe，triedcinchonabarkandrecoveredofhisfever，otherstriedituponthisexampleandgotbenefit，andsothefameoftheremedyspreadfirstfromasinglecentre，andafterwardsfromanumberofotherpersonalcentresbyconsciousimitation。Or，similarly，taketheadoptionofsomearticleofdiet，suchassugarortobacco，whichisanelementnotofprimephysicalutilitybutofcomfortorpleasure。Thefirstmenwhochewedthesugar-cane，ortriedthefumesoftheherbanicotina，mustbedeemedtohavedoneso\'byaccident\'。Likingtheresult，theyrepeatedtheexperimentbydesign，andthispersonalhabitbecomethecustomaryhabitofthegroup，mouldedbyatraditioncontinuouslysupportedbyarepetitionofthefeelingwhichattendedthefirstchanceexperience。
Suchaccretionstoastandardofconsumptionmayberegardedaspossessingguaranteesofutilityorsafeguardsagainststrongpositivedisutilityintheirmethodofadoption。Theyhavegrownintotheconventionalstandard\'ontheirmerits\'。Those\'merits\'mayindeedbevariouslyestimatedfromthe\'organic\'standpoint。Quininehasahighorganicvirtue，sugarperhapsanevenwiderbutlessvitalvirtue，whilethevirtueoftobaccomaybepurelysuperficialandcompensatedbyconsiderableorganicdemerits。Butbothdiscoveryandpropagationhavebeeninallthesecases\'natural\'and\'reasonable\'processes，intheplainordinaryacceptationoftheseterms。
Someactualutilityhasbeendiscoveredandrecognised，andnewarticlesthusincorporatedinastandardofconsumption，eitherforregularorspecialuse，haveatanyratesatisfiedapreliminarytestoforganicwelfare。
Ifallnewhabitsofconsumptionaroseinthisfashion，andthepreliminarytestcouldbeconsideredthoroughlyreliable，theeconomyoftheevolutionofstandardsofconsumptionwouldbeasafeandsoundone。Thishypothesisinitsveryformindicatestheseverallinesoferrordiscernibleintheactualevolutionofclassstandards。Afalsificationofthestandard，involvingtheadmissionofwastefulorpositivelynoxiousconsumables，mayarise，eitherintheinitialstageofinvention，orintheprocessofimitativeadoption。Thiswilloccurwherevertheinitialortheimitativeprocessisvitiatedbyanextraneousmotive。Averysmallproportionofmedicinesincustomaryuseamongprimitivepeopleshavetheorganicvalidityofquinine。
Mostofthemare\'charms\'，inventedbymedicinemen，notastheresulteitherofachanceorplannedexperiment，butastheworkofanimaginationoperatinguponthelinesofanempiricalpsychology，inwhichtherelationoftheactualorknownpropertiesofthemedicinetowardsthediseaseplaynoappreciablepart。
Soawholemagicalpharmacopoeiawillbeerecteduponabasisoftotemistandanimistbeliefs，mingledwithcircumstantialmisconceptionsandgratuitousfabrications，andcontainingnoorganicutility。Eachadditionorvariantwillbeginasanartificialinventionandwillbeadoptedforreasonsofprestige，authorityorfear，carryingnoneofthatorganicconfirmationwhichsecureditspositionforquinine。Thelimitoferrorinsuchcaseswillbethatthemedicinemustnotfrequentlycauseaseriousandimmediateaggravationofthesufferingofthepatient。Thepatentor\'conventional\'
medicinesamongcivilisedpeoplesmustbeconsideredinthemainascontainingafalsificationofstandardofthesamekind，thoughdifferentindegree。
Astheprimitivemedicineman，calledupontocureafeveroradrought，isprimarilymotivedbythedesiretomaintainorenhancehispersonalorcasteprestige，whiletheadoptionofhisspecificintoaconventionisduetoawhollyirrationalauthorityortoawhollyaccidentalsuccess，soisitwithalargeproportionofmodernremedies。Evenintheorthodoxbranchesofthemedicalprofessiontheprocessofconvertingvagueempiricismintoscientificexperimenthasgonesuchalittlewayastofurnishnoguaranteeforthefullorganicefficacyofmanyofthetreatmentsuponwhichthepatientpublicspendsanincreasingshareofitsincome。Butasregardstheprofessionthereisatanyratesomebasisofconfidenceinthedisinterestedapplicationofsciencetothediscoveryofgenuineorganicutility。
Inthepatentmedicinetradethereisverylittle。Herewehaveaconditionverylittlebetterthanthatofthepowerofthewitch-doctorinprimitivesociety。Themaxim\'caveatemptor\'carriesvirtuallynosecurity，fortheguidanceofthepalateisruledout，whilethetestofexperience，exceptforpurgationorforsomeequallysimpleandimmediateresult，isnearlyworthless。
§；6。Whentheinventionandpropagationofamodeofconsumptionhavepassedintothehandsofatrade，theguaranteesoforganicutility，thechecksagainstorganicinjury，areattheirweakest。Forneitherprocessisdirected，eitherbyinstinctorreason，alongserviceablechannels。
Wherethecommercialmotivetakestheinitiative，therecanbenoadequatesecuritythatthearticleswhichpassasnewelementsintoastandardofconsumptionshallbewealth，notillth。Whereaninventionisstimulatedtomeetagenuinely\'long-feltneed\'，thegeneralityanddurationofthatneedmaybeafairguaranteeofutility。Butthisisnotthecasewherethesupplyprecedesandevokesthedemand，themoreusualcaseunderdevelopedcommercialism。Neitherintheactionoftheinventor，norinthespreadofthenewhabitofconsumption，isthereanysafegaugeofutility。Theinventor，orcommercialinitiator，isonlyconcernedwiththequestion，CanImakeandsellasufficientquantityofthisarticleataprofit？
Inordertodoso，itistrue，hemustpersuadeenoughbuyersthatthey\'want\'thearticleand\'want\'itmorethansomeotherarticlesonwhichtheyotherwisemightspendtheirmoney。Tounreflectingpersonsthis，nodoubt，appearsasufficienttestofutility。Butisit？Thepurchasermustbemadetofeelorthinkthatthearticleis\'good\'forhimatthetimewhenitisbroughtbeforehisnotice。Forthispurposeitmustbeendowedwithsomespeciouslyattractiveproperty，orrecommendedaspossessingsuchaproperty。Acheapmercerisedcottoncloth，manufacturedtosimulatesilk，sellsbyitsinherentsuperficialattraction。Anewlineindrapery\'pushed\'intousebytherepeatedstatement，falseatthebeginning，that\'itisworn\'，illustratesthesecondmethod。
Inaword，theartsofthemanufacturerandofthevendor，whichhavenodirectrelationwhatevertointrinsicutility，overcomeandsubjugatetheuncertain，untrainedor\'artificially\'pervertedtasteoftheconsumer。Thusitarisesthatinacommercialsocietyeverystandardofclasscomfortiscertaintocontainlargeingredientsofuselessornoxiousconsumption，articles，notonlybadinthemselves，butoftenpoisoningordistortingthewholestandard。
Theartsofadulterationandofadvertisingareofcourseresponsibleformanyoftheworstinstances。Askilledcombinationofthetwoprocesseshassucceededincancellingthehumanvalueofaverylargeproportionofthenewincrementsofmoneyincomeinthelowermiddleandtheworking-classes，whereagrowingsusceptibilitytonewdesiresisaccompaniedbynointelligentchecksupontheplayofinterestedsuggestionastothemodesofsatisfyingthesedesires。
Wherespeciousfabricationandstrongskilledsuggestioncooperatetoplantnewingredientsinastandardofconsumption，thereisthusnosecurityastotheamountofutilityordisutilityattachingtothe\'realincome\'representedbythese\'goods\'。Butthisvitiationofstandardsisnotequallyapplicabletoallgradesofconsumption，ortoallclassesofconsumers。Somekindsofgoodswillbeeasiertofalsifyortoadulteratethanothers，someclassesofconsumerswillbeeasierto\'imposeupon\'
thanothers。Theseconsiderationswillsetlimitsupontheamountofwasteand\'illth\'containedinthegoodsandserviceswhichcompriseourrealincome。
First，astotheartsoffalsification。Severallawsoflimitationhereemerge。Somematerials，suchasgoldandrubber，havenoeasilyprocurableandcheapersubstitutesforcertainuses。Othergoodsareinsomeconsiderabledegreeprotectedfromimitationandadulterationbythesurvivalofreliabletestsandtastes，touchandsight，inlargenumbersofconsumers。Thisappliestosimplersortsofgoodswhoseconsumptionisdeepestinthestandardandhasastrongbasisofvitalutility。Itwillbemoredifficulttoadulteratebreadorplainsugartoanylargeextentthansaucesorsweets。Itwillbeeasiertofakephotographsthantopassoffplaiceforsoles。Butitcannotbeassertedasageneraltruththatthenecessariesarebetterdefendedagainstencroachmentsofadulterationandothermodesofdeceptionthanconveniences，andconveniencesthanluxuries。Indeed，therearetwoconsiderationsthattelltheotherway。
Amanufacturerormerchantwhocanpalmoffacheapersubstituteforsomecommonnecessaryoflife，orsomewell-establishedconvenience，hasadoubletemptationtodoso。For，inthefirstplace，themagnitudeandreliabilityofthedemandmakethefalsificationunusuallyprofitable。Inthesecondplace，sofarasalargeproportionofarticlesareconcerned，hecanrelyuponthefactthatmostconsumptionofnecessariesliesbelowthemarginofclearattentionandcriticism。Exceptinthecaseofcertainprimearticlesofdiet，itisprobablethataconsumerismorelikelytodetectsomechangeofqualityinthelatestluxuryaddedtohisstandardthaninthehabitualarticlesofdailyuse，suchashisshoe-leatherorhissoap。Infact，sowellrecognisedisthisprotectionaffordedtothesellerbytheunconsciousnesswhichhabitbringstotheconsumer，that，incateringforquitenewhabits，suchascerealbreakfastfoodsorcigarettes，themanufacturerwaitsuntiltheoriginalattractionsofhisgoodshavestampedthemselvesfirmlyincustomaryuse，beforehedarestolowerthequalityorreducethequantity。
Theseconsiderationsmakeitunlikelythatwecandiscoveraclearlawexpressingtheinjuryofcommercialismintermsofthegreaterorlessorganicurgencyofthewantsministeredtobythedifferentordersofcommodities。
Itwillevenbedifficulttoascertainwhethertheartsofadulterationorfalsesubstitutionplaymorehavocamongthenecessariesthanamongtheluxuriesoflife。Inneitheristhereanyadequatesafeguardfortheorganicworthofthearticlesboughtandsold，thoughinboththeremustbeheldtobeacertainpresumptionfavourabletosomeorganicsatisfactionattendingtheimmediateactofconsumption。Ifa\'law\'offalsificationcanbefoundatall，itismorelikelytoemergefromacomparativestudynotofnecessaries，conveniences，comfortsandluxuries，inaclassstandard，butofthevarioussortsofsatisfactionsclassifiedinrelationtotheneedswhichunderliethem。Wheregoodsareconsumedassoonastheyarebought，andbysomeprocessinvolvingastrongappealtothesenses，thereislesschanceforvulgarfraudthanwhereconsumptionisgradualorpostponed，andisnotattendedbyanymomentofvividrealisation。Otherthingsequal，onemightexpectmoreeasilytosellshoddyclothingthansimilarlydamagedfood:theadulterationofajerry-builthouseislesseasilydetected，orlessadequatelyreprobated，thanthatofajerry-builtsuitofclothes。
Alongsimilarlineswemight，inconsideringnon-materialconsumption，urgethattherearemoresafeguardsforutilityintheexpenditureuponbooksormusic-hallperformancesthanuponeducationorchurchmembership。
Andinasensethisistrue。IfIbuyabookorattendaconcert，IamsurertogetwhatIregardasaquidproquoformyexpenditurethaninthecaseofaprolongedprocessinvolvingmanysmallconsecutiveacts。
Sofarasthisistrue，itmeansthatrelicsoforganicguidancearemoretrulyoperativeinsomekindsofsatisfactionthaninothers，andfurnishsomebettercheckuponthedeceptionwhichcommercialismmayseektopractise。But，ofcourse，ourvaluationofsuchcheckswilldependuponhowfarwecanacceptthemasreliabletests，notofsomeshort-rangeimmediatesatisfaction，butofthewiderindividualandsocialwelfare。Thefactthatsomanynotoriouslybadhabitscanbeacquiredbyreasonofanimmediate\'organic\'attractivenessthatisafalsecluetothelargerwelfare，mustputusonourguardagainstacceptinganyeasylawbasedonthetestof\'natural\'tastes。
§；7。But，inconsideringthedegradationofstandardsofconsumption，itiswelltobringsomecloseranalysistobearupontheprocessesofsuggestionandadoptionthatarecomprisedin\'imitation\'。Inanalysingtheformsofwealth，thegoodsandservices，whicharetherealincomeofthenation，intermsoftheirproduction，werecognisedthat，otherthingsequal，thehumancostofanybodyofthatwealthvarieddirectlywiththeamountofroutineorpurelyimitativeworkputintoit，andinverselywiththeamountofcreativeorindividualwork。Thatjudgment，however，wefeltboundtoqualifybytheconsiderationthatacertainproportionofroutinework，thoughinitselfperhapsdistastefulanduninteresting，hadanorganicvaluebothfortheindividualandforsociety。
HowfarcanweapplyananalogousjudgmenttothesamebodyofWealthonitsconsumptionside？Canweassumethattheutilityofconsumptionofanygivenbodyofwealthvariesdirectlywiththeamountoffreepersonalexpressionwhichitsuseconnotes，andinverselywiththeroutineorconventionalcharacteritbears？Evidentlynot。Thesameanalysisdoesnotapply。Thechiefreasonforthedifferencehasalreadybeenindicated，bypointingoutthat，inamodernindustrialsociety，eachman，asproducer，ishighlyspecialised，asconsumerhighlygeneralised。Thehighhumancostsofroutineworkwere，wesaw，adirectresultofthisspecialisingprocess。Alittleroutineworkofseveralsorts，regularlypractised，wouldinvolvenoorganiccost，andmightindeedyieldafundofpositiveutilityasawholesomeré；gimeofexercise，provideditwasnotcarriedsofarastoencroachuponthefundofenergyneededfortheperformanceofotherspecialwork，creativeandinteresting。
Indeed，theusualeconomicjustificationoftheexcessivedivisionoflabourexistingatpresentinadvancedindustrialsocietiesisthatitisessentialtoyieldthatlargebodyofobjectivewealthwhich，byitsdistribution，enrichesandgivesvarietytotheconsumptionofallmembersofthesociety。Theproducerissacrificedtotheconsumer，thedamagedonetoeachmaninhisformercapacitybeingmorethancompensatedbythebenefitsconferreduponhiminhislattercapacity。
Thefullvalidityofthisdoctrinewillbeconsideredwhenwegathertogetherthetwosidesofouranalysisandconsidertheinter-relationsbetweenproductionandconsumptionasanaspectoftheproblemofhumanvalues。
Atpresentwemaybeginbyacceptingvarietyofconsumptionasaconditioninitselffavourabletothemaximisationofhumanwelfare。
Thisassumptionisnot，however，quiteself-evident。Theroutinefactorsinastandardofconsumptionandastandardquastandardconsistsofroutine，sofarastheyarelaiddownunderthedirectionofaninstinctiveorarationalevolutionofwants，mustberegardedascontainingaminimumofwasteordisutility。Sincetheyarealsothefoundationandtheindispensableconditionforallthe\'higher\'formsofmaterialornon-materialconsumptioninwhichtheconsciouspersonalityofindividualsfindsexpression，theymaybeheldtocontainperunitamaximumofhumanvalue。Fromthisstandpointtherewouldseemtoemergealawoftheeconomyofconsumption，totheeffectthatthemaximumofsocialwelfarewouldbegotfromadistributionofwealthwhichabsorbedtheentireproductinthisroutinesatisfactionofthecommonneedsoflife。Thiseconomyneednotbeconceivedmerelyintermsofauniformstandardofmaterialsatisfactions。Awiderinterpretationoflifeandofnecessariesmightextenditsoastocovermanyhighergradesofsatisfaction，allthe\'joysthatareinwidestcommonaltyspread。\'Thenaturalevolutionofsuchaneconomyofconsumptionmight，itisarguable，yieldthegreatestquantityofsocialwelfare。
§；8。Butahighuniformlevelofwelfarethroughoutsocietydoesnotexhaustthedemandsofhumanwelfare。Itevidentlyoverstressesthelifeofthesocialasagainsttheindividualorganism，imposingaregimenofequalitywhichabsorbsthemanyintotheone。Now，desiroustoholdthebalancefairbetweentheclaimsofindividualpersonalityandofsociety，wecannotacquiesceinanidealofeconomicalconsumptionwhichmakesnodirectprovisionfortheformer。Sofar，however，astheconsumptionofanindividualisofaroutinecharacter，expressingonlytheneedsofahumannatureheldincommonwithhisfellows，itdoesnotreallyexpresshisindividualityatall。Therealisationoftheuniquevaluesofhispersonality，andtheconscioussatisfactionthatproceedsfromthisindividualexpression，canonlybegotbyactivitieswhichliebeyondthescopeofcustomandconvention。Thoughthisissuehasmostimportantbearingsthatareoutsidetheeconomicfield，itisalsovitallyconnectedwiththeuseofeconomicgoods。For，unlessadueproportionofthegeneralincometheaggregateofgoodsandservicesisplacedatthefreedisposalofindividualsinsuchformsastonourishandstimulatethewholesomeandjoyousexpansionoftheirpowers，thatsocialprogresswhichfirstmanifestsitselfinthefreeexperimentalandcreativeactionsofindividualswhosenaturesvaryinsomefineandserviceablewayfromthecommonlife，willbethwarted。
Thisbringsustoabetterunderstandingofthenatureandoriginofthehumaninjuryandwastecontainedinlargesectionsofthatconventionalconsumptionwhichplayssolargeandsodepressingapartineveryclassstandardofcomfort。
Wheretheproductionofaneconomicsocietyhasgrownsofarastoyieldaconsiderableandagrowingsurplusbeyondthatrequiredforsurvivalpurposes，thissurplusisliabletoseveralabuses。Insteadofbeingappliedasfoodandstimulustothephysicalandspiritualgrowthofindividualandsociallife，itmaybesquandered，eitheruponexcessivesatisfactionofexistingroutinewantsinanyclassorclasses，orinthestimulationandsatisfactionofmoreroutinewantsandtheevolutionofacomplexconventionalstandardofconsumption，containinginitsnewfactorsadiminishingamountofhumanutilityorevenanincreasingamountofhumancosts。Iftheindustrialstructureissuchthatparticulargroupsofbusinessmencanmakeprivategainsbystimulatingnewwastefulmodesofconventionalconsumption，thisprocess，aswehaveseen，isgreatlyfacilitated。
But，afterall，thebusinessmotiveisnotinitselfanadequateexplanation。
Businessfirmssuggestnewwants，butthesusceptibilitytosuchsuggestions，theactiveimitationbywhichanewarticlepassesintotheconventionalconsumptionofagrouporclass，requirescloserconsideration。Falsificationofastandardcanseldombeunderstoodasamereperversionofthefreechoiceofindividuals。Aconventionisnotproducedbyamerecoincidenceofseparatechoices。Imitationplaysanimportantpartinthecontagionandinfectionofexample。Inendeavouringtoassessthehumanutilityoftheconsumptionofwealthweseetheplayofseveralimitativeforces。
CurrentPrestige，Tradition，Authority，Fashion，Respectabilitysupplementoroftendisplacetheplayofindividualtaste，goodorbad，inmouldingaclassandfamilystandardofconsumption。Thepsychologyandsociologyofthesedistinctivelyimitativeforceswhichformorchangestandardsareexceedinglyobscure。
Themerelygregariousinstinctmayleadtothespreadinaclassorgroupofanynoveltywhichattractsattentionandisnotoffensive。Wheresupportedbyanyelementofpersonalprestige，suchnovelty，irrespectiveofitsrealvirtuesoruses，mayspreadandbecomeembeddedinastandardofconsumption。Thebeginningsofeveryfashionlargelybelongtothisorderofimitation。Someprestigeisusuallyneededfairlytolaunchanewfashion；oncelauncheditspreadsmainlyby\'gregariousness\'，theinstincttobe，orlook，oract，likeotherpeople。Thelimitsoferror，disutilityorinconvenience，whichcanbesetuponanoveltyoffashion，appeartodependmainlyupontheinitialforceofprestige。TheKingmightintroduceintoLondonsocietyareallyinconvenienthighhat，thoughtheQueenperhapscouldnotcarryafullrevivalofthecrinoline。
Fashionschangebuttheyleavedepositsofconventionalexpenditurebehind。Whatisatfirstfashionableoftenremainsasrespectableandliveslongintheconventionalhabitsofaclass。Everyclassstandardisencrustedwithlittleelementsofdeadfashion。
§；9。ButthisformativeinfluenceofPrestigeitselfdemandsfullerconsideration。Foritnotmerelyimplantselementsofexpenditureinthestandardofconsumption，butinfectsthestandarditself。
Atruestandardwouldrestonabasisoforganicutility，expenditurebeingapportionedsoastopromotethesoundest，fullesthumanlife。Butallconventionalconsumptionisdeterminedlargelybyvaluationsimposedbytheclasspossessingmostprestige。Itis，ofcourse，acommonplacethatfashionsindress，andincertainexternalmodesofconsumption，descendbysnobbishimitationfromhighlifethroughthedifferentsocialstrata，eachclasscopyingtheclassabove。Itisamatteroffarmorevitalimportancethatreligion，ethics，art，literatureandthewholerangeofintellectualactivities，manners，amusements，taketheirshapesandvalueslargelybythesameprocessofinfiltrationfromabove。
Thisisnotthecaseeverywhere。Inmanynationsthedistinctionsofcaste，class，localityoroccupation，aresostrongastoprecludethepassageofhabitsofmaterialconsumption，manners，tastesandideas，fromonesocialstratumtoanother。Theexclusivepossessionofacodeoflife，oflanguage，thoughtandfeelingsbyacasteorclass，isitselfamatterofpride，andoftenoflegalprotection。ThisholdsnotonlyofmostAsiaticcivilisationsbut，thoughlessrigorously，ofthoseEuropeancountrieswhichhavenotbeenfullysubjectedtothedissolvingforcesofindustrialism。
ButinsuchcountriesasEnglandandtheUnitedStates，wheretheindustrialartsarerapidlyevolvingnewproductsandstimulatingnewtastes，andwhereatthesametimethesocialstratapresentacontinuousgradationwithmuchmovementfromonestratumtoanother，theprocessofStationbyprestigeisveryrapidandgeneral。
Theactualexpenditureoftheincomeofeveryclassinthesecountriesisverylargelydetermined，notbyorganicneeds，butbyimitationoftheconventionalconsumptionoftheclassimmediatelyaboveinincomeorinsocialesteem。Thatconventionalconsumptioninitsturnisformedbyimitationoftheclassabove。Thearistocracy，plutocracy，orclasswithmostpowerorprestige，thusmakesthestandardsfortheotherclasses。
Now，evenifitwerearealaristocracy，acompanyofthebest，itbynomeansfollowsthatastandardoflivinggoodforthemwouldbeequallygoodforothersocialgrades。Buttherewouldbeatleastastrongpresumptioninitsfavour。Tocopygoodexamples，evenifthecopyingisdefective，isanelevatingpractice，andinasmuchastheessentialsofhumanityarefoundalikeinall，thoughtlessimitationofone\'sbettersmightraiseone\'sownstandard。Ifinasocietythemenoflightandleadingoccupiedthisplacebecausetheyhaddiscoveredageniusfortheartofnobleliving，theswiftunconsciousimitationoftheirmodeoflife，themoralsandmannersofthisaristocracy，wouldsurelybethefinestschoolingforthewholepeople:themodelsofthegood，thetrue，thebeautiful，whichtheyafforded，wouldinformeachlowergrade，accordingtoitscapacity。
Butwherethewholeforcesofprestigeandimitationaresetonashamaristocracy，copyingascloselyaspossibletheirmodesofconsumption，theirwaysofthoughtandfeeling，theirvaluationsandideals，incalculabledamageandwastemayensue。Forthedefectsinthestandardoftheupperfewwill，byimitation，bemagnifiedaswellasmultipliedinthelowerstandardsofthemany。Letmeillustrate。
Ifgamblingisbadfortheupperclasses，itsimitationbecomesprogressivelyworseasitdescends，poisoningthelifeandconsumingalargerproportionofthediminishingmarginoftheincomeofeachclass。Iftheinconvenienceofdecorativedressisbadforrichwomen，wholivealifeofeaseandleisure，itsimitationbytheactivehousewivesofthemiddle，andthewomen-workersofthelowerclasses，inflictsagraverdisutility。Forthewasteofincomeismoreinjuriousandthephysicalimpedimentstolibertyofmovementaremoreonerous。Itistheimmeasurableimportanceofthisprestigeoftheupperclass，percolatingthroughalllowersocialgrades，andimposing，notmerelyelementsofconventionalconsumption，butstandardsandideasoflifewhichaffectthewholemodeofliving，thatrequiresustogivecloserconsiderationtothelifeoftheleisureclass。
§；10。HerewecanfindvaluableaidinaremarkablebookentitledTheTheoryoftheLeisureClass，byMr。Veblen，anAmericansociologist。