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　　principlemayonlymeanadoctrinewhichisperfectlycompatiblewithabeliefin’altruism’——thedoctrine，namely，thatasafactmostpeoplearechieflyinterestedbytheirownaffairs。Thelegislator，hetellsus，shouldtrytoincreasesympathy，butthelesshetakessympathyforthe’basisofhisarrangements’——thatis，thelesscallhemakesuponpurelyunselfishmotives——thegreaterwillbehissuccess。121*Thisisashrewdand，Ishouldsay，averysoundremark，butitimplies——notthatallmotivesareselfishinthelastanalysis，but——thatthelegislationshouldnotassumetooexaltedalevelofordinarymorality。TheutterancesintheveryunsatisfactoryDeontologyareoflittlevalue，andseemtoimplyamoralsentimentcorrespondingtoapettyformofcommonplaceprudence。122*

　　Leavingthispoint，however，theproblemnecessarilypresenteditselftoBenthaminaforminwhichselfishnessisthepredominatingforce，andanyrecognitionofindependentbenevolenceratheranincumbrancethanahelp。

　　Ifwetakethe’self-preferenceprinciple’absolutely，thequestionbecomeshowamultitudeofindividuals，eachseparatelypursuinghisownhappiness，cansoarrangemattersthattheirjointactionmaysecurethehappinessofall。Clearlyaman，howeverselfish，hasaninterestgenerallyinputtingdowntheftandmurder。Heisalreadyprovidedwithanumberofintereststowhichsecurity，atleast，andthereforearegularadministrationofjustice，isessential。Hisshopcouldnotbecarriedonwithoutthepolice；andhemayagreetopaytheexpenses，evenifothersreapthebenefitingreaterproportion。Atheoryoflegislation，therefore，whichsupposesreadyformedalltheinstinctswhichmakeadecentcommercialsocietypossiblecandowithoutmuchreferencetosympathyoraltruism。Bentham’smanisnotthecolourlessunitofaprioriwriting，northenoblesavageofRousseau，buttherespectablecitizenwithapolicemanroundthecorner。Suchamanmaywellholdthathonestyisthebestpolicy；hehasenoughsympathytobekindtohisoldmother，andhelpafriendindistress；buttheneedofromanticandelevatedconductrarelyoccurstohim；andtheheroic，ifhemeetsit，appearstohimasanexception，notfarremovedfromthesilly。Hedoesnotreflect——especiallyifhecaresnothingforhistory——howeventhesocietyinwhichheisacontentedunithasbeenbuiltup，andhowmuchloyaltyandheroismhasbeenneededforthework；noreven，todohimjustice，whatunsuspectedcapacitiesmaylurkinhisowncommonplacecharacter。Thereallycharacteristicpointis，however，thatBenthamdoesnotclearlyfacetheproblem。Heiscontenttotakeforgrantedasanultimatefactthattheself-interestprincipleinthelongruncoincideswiththegreatest’happiness’principle，andleavestheproblemtohissuccessors。Thereweshallmeetitagain。

　　Finally，Bentham’sviewofreligionrequiresaword。Theshortreply，however，wouldbesufficient，thathedidnotbelieveinanytheology，andwasinthemainindifferenttothewholequestiontillitencounteredhiminpoliticalmatters。HisfirstinterestapparentlywasrousedbytheeducationalquestionswhichIhavenoticed，andtheproposaltoteachthecatechismBentham，rememberingtheearlybullyingatOxford，examinesthecatechism；andarguesinhisusualstylethattoenforceitistocompelchildrentotelllies。

　　Butthisleadshimtoassailthechurchgenerally；andheregardsthechurchsimplyasapartofthehugecorruptmachinerywhichelsewherehadcreatedJudgeandCo。Hestatesmanyfactsaboutnon-residenceandbloatedbishopricswhichhadaveryseriousimportance；andhethenaskshowtheworkmightbedonemorecheaply。Asaclergyman’sonlydutyistoreadweeklyservicesandpreachsermons，hesuggestswhetherseriouslymaybedoubtedthatthismightbedoneaswellbyteachingaparishboytoreadproperly，andprovidehimwiththeprayer-bookandthehomilies。123*Agreatdealofexpensewouldbesaved。This，again，seemstohaveledhimtoattackSt。Paul，whomhetooktoberesponsiblefordogmatictheology，andthereforeforthecatechism；

　　andhecross-examinestheapostle，andconfrontshisvariousaccountsoftheconversionwithakeennessworthyofaprofessionallawyer。InoneoftheMSS。atUniversityCollegethesamemethodisappliedtothegospels。

　　BenthamwasclearlynotcapableofanticipatingRenan。Fromthesestudieshewasledtothefarmoreinterestingbook，publishedunderthenameofPhilipBeauchamp。Benthamsuppliedtheargumentinpart；buttomeitseemsclearthatitowessomuchtotheeditor，Grote，thatitmaymorefitlybediscussedhereafter。

　　ThelimitationsanddefectsofBentham’sdoctrinehavebeenmadeabundantlyevidentbylatercriticism。Theywereduepartlytohispersonalcharacter，andpartlytotheintellectualandspecialatmosphereinwhichhewasbroughtup。Butitismoreimportanttorecognisetheimmenserealvalueofhisdoctrine。

　　Briefly，Ishouldsay，thatthereishardyanargumentinBentham’svoluminouswritingswhichisnottothepurposesofarasitgoes。Givenhispointofview，heisinvariablycogentandrelevant。And，moreover，thatisapointofviewwhichhastobetaken。Noethicalorpoliticaldoctrinecan，asI

　　hold，besatisfactorywhichdoesnotfindaplaceforBentham，thoughhewasfar，indeed，fromgivingacompletetheoryofhissubject。AndthemainreasonofthisisthatwhichIhavealreadyindicated。Bentham’swholelifewasspentintheattempttocreateascienceoflegislation。Evenwhereheismosttiresome，thereisacertaininterestinhisunflaggingworkingoutofeveryargument，anditsapplicationtoallconceivablecases。Itisallgenuinereasoning；andthroughoutitisdominatedbyarespectforgoodsolidfacts。Hishatredof’vaguegeneralities’124*meansthathewillbecontentwithnoformulawhichcannotbeinterpretedintermsofdefinitefacts。Theresolutiontoinsistuponthisshouldreallybecharacteristicofeverywriteruponsimilarsubjects，andnooneeversurpassedBenthaminattentiontoit。Classifyandreclassify，tomakesurethatateverypointyourclassescorrespondtorealities。Intheefforttocarryouttheseprinciples，Benthamatleastbroughtinnumerablequestionstoasoundtest，andexplodedmanypestilentfallacies。Ifhedidnotsucceedfurther，ifwholespheresofthoughtremainedoutsideofhisvision，itwasbecauseinhisdaytherewasnotonlynoscienceof’sociology’orpsychology——therearenosuchsciencesnow——butnoadequateperceptionofthevastvarietyofinvestigationwhichwouldbenecessarytolayabasisforthem。Buttheefforttoframeascienceisitselfvaluable，indeedofsurpassingvalue，sofarasitiscombinedwithagenuinerespectforfacts。Itiscommonenoughtoattempttocreateasciencebyinventingtechnicalterminology。Benthamtriedthefarwiderandfarmorefruitfulmethodofaminuteinvestigationofparticularfacts。

　　Hiswork，therefore，willstand，howeverdifferentsomeoftheresultsmayappearwhenfittedintoadifferentframework。And，therefore，howevercrudelyandimperfectly，Benthamdid，asIbelieve，helptoturnspeculationintoatrueandprofitablechannel。Ofthat，morewillappearhereafter；but，ifanyonedoubtsBentham’sservices，IwillonlysuggesttohimtocompareBenthamwithanyofhisBritishcontemporaries，andtoaskwherehecanfindanythingatallcomparabletohisresoluteattempttobringlightandorderintoachaoticinfusionofcompromiseandprejudice。

　　NOTES：

　　1。SeenoteunderBentham’sLife，note20，previouschapter。

　　2。PrefacetoMoralsandLegislation。

　　3。Works，i，’MoralsandLegislation’，ii，n。

　　4。Essay，bk，ii，ch。xxi，section39-section44。Thewill，saysLocke，isdeterminedbythe’uneasinessofdesire’。Whatmovesdesire?Happiness，andthatalone。Happinessispleasure，andmiserypain。Whatproducespleasurewecallgood；andwhatproducespainewecallevil。Locke，however，wasnotaconsistentUtiliarian。

　　5。Epistle，iv，openinglines。

　　6。Works，viii，82。

　　7。Works’ConstitutionalCode’，ix，123。

　　8。Works，’Fragment’，i，287。

　　9。Works，’MoralsandLegislation’，i，6-10。MillquotesthispassageinhisessayonBenthaminthefirstvolumeofhisDissertations。Thisessay，excellentinitself，mustbespeciallynoticedasanexpositionbyanauthoritariandisciple。

　　10。Works’MoralsandLegislation’，i，13。

　　11。Works’MoralsandLegislation’i，v。

　　12。Works’Evidence’，vi，261。

　　13。Works’Evidence’，vii。116。

　　14。Ibid。，’MoralsandLegislation’i，14，etc；Ibid。，vi，260。InIbid。

　　’Evidence’vii，116’humanity，andin’LogicalArrangement’，Ibid。ii，290，’sympathy’appearsasafifthsanction。AnothermodificationissuggestedinIbid。，i，14n。

　　15。Ibid。，’MoralsandLegislation’i，67。

　　16。Works’MoralsandLegislation’i，96n。

　　17。SeeespeciallyIbid。，viii，104，etc。；253，etc。；289，etc。

　　18。Ibid，viii，106。

　　19。’Codify’wasoneofBetham’ssuccessfulneologisms。

　　20。Works’Logic’，viii，220。

　　21。HereBenthamcoincideswithHorneTooke，towhose’discoveries’herefersintheChrestomathiaWorks，viii，120，185，188。

　　22。Works，iii，286，viii，119。

　　23。Ibid。，’Ontology’viii，196n。

　　24。Ibid。，viii，197n。

　　25。Ibid。，viii，263。

　　26。Works’Ontology’，viii，119。

　　27。Ibid。，viii，198。

　　28。Ibid。，viii，199。

　　29。Ibid。，viii，206，247。

　　30。Helv&eacute；tiusaddstothisthattheonlyrealpainsandpleasuresarethephysical，butBenthamdoesnotfollowhimhere。SeeHelv&eacute；tiusOEuvres1781，ii，121，etc。

　　31。Works，i，211’SpringsofAction’。