TheseItaketobethedifferentdegreesofsubordinationbetweenmanandman，consideredasmembersofthesamesociety。
Inproportion，therefore，ascertainclasses，orcertainindividualsbecomemoredependentthanformerly，inthesameproportionoughttheirjustsubordinationtoincrease:andinproportionastheybecomelessdependentthanformerly，inthesameproportionoughtthisjustsubordinationtodiminish。Thisseemstobearationalprinciple:nextfortheapplication。
Ideducetheoriginofthegreatsubordinationunderthefeudalgovernment，fromthenecessarydependenceofthelowerclassesfortheirsubsistence。Theyconsumedtheproduceoftheland，asthepriceoftheirsubordination，notastherewardoftheirindustryinmakingitproduce。
Ideducemodernlibertyfromtheindependenceofthesameclasses，bytheintroductionofindustry，andcirculationofanadequateequivalentforeveryservice。
Ifthisdoctrinebeappliedinordertoresolvethefamousquestionsomuchdebated，concerningtheoriginofsupremeauthority，sofarasitisaquestionofthelawofnature，Idonotfindthedecisionsoverydifficult:Allauthorityisinproportiontodependence，andmustvaryaccordingtocircumstances。
Ithinkitisasrationaltosay，thatthefatherlypowerproceededoriginallyfromtheactofthechildren，astosay，thatthegreatbodyofthepeoplewhowerefed，andprotectedbyafewgreatlords，wasthefountainofpower，andcreatorofsubordination。Thosewhohavenootherequivalenttogivefortheirfoodandprotection，mustpayinpersonalservice，respect，andsubmission；andsosoonastheycometobeasituationtopayaproperequivalentforthesedependences，sofartheyacquireatitletolibertyandindependence。Thefeudallords，therefore，who，withreason，hadanentireauthorityovermanyoftheirvassals，beingsubduedbytheirKing；theusurpationwasupontheirrights，notupontherightsofthelowerclasses:butwhenaKingcametoextendthepowerhehadoverthevassalsofthelords，totheinhabitantsofcities，whohadbeenindependentofthissubordination，hisusurpationbecameevident。
TherightsofKings，therefore，aretobesoughtforinhistory；andnotfoundeduponthesuppositionoftacitcontractsbetweenthemandtheirpeople，inferredfromtheprinciplesofanimaginarylawofnature，whichmakesallmankindequal:naturecanneverbeinoppositiontocommonreason。
ThegeneralprincipleIhavelaiddown，appears，inmyhumbleopinion，morerationalthanthisimaginarycontract；andasconsonanttothefullwiththespiritoffreegovernment。IftheoriginaltacitcontractofgovernmentbetweenPrinceandpeopleisadmitteduniversally，thenallgovernmentsoughttobesimilar；andeverysubordination，whichappearscontrarytotheentirelibertyandindependenceofthelowestclasses，oughttobeconstruedastyrannical:whereas，accordingtomyprinciple，thesubordinationofclassesmay，indifferentcountries，bevastlydifferent；theprerogativeofonesovereignmay，fromdifferentcircumstances，befarmoreextendedthanthatofanother。
Maynotonehaveattainedthesovereigntybythefreeelectionofthepeople，Isupposebecauseofthegreatextentofhispossessions，numberofhisvassalsanddependents，quantityofwealth，alliancesandconnexionswithneighbouringsovereigns？
Hadnot，forexample，suchapersonasHughCapet，thegreatestfeudallordofhistime，arighttoamuchmoreextensivejurisdictionoverhissubjects，thancouldreasonablybeaspiredtobyaKingofPoland，sentfromFrance，orfromGermany，andsetattheheadofarepublic，wherehehasnotonepersondependinguponhimforanything？
ThepowerofPrinces，asPrinces，mustthenbedistinguishedfromthepowertheyderivefromothercircumstances，whichdonotnecessarilyfollowinconsequenceoftheirelevationtothethrone。Itwould，Ithink，bethegreatestabsurditytoadvance，thatthetitleofKingabolishes，ofitself，thesubordinationduetothepersonwhoexercisestheofficeofthathighmagistracy。
Matteroffact，whichisstrongerthanallreasoning，demonstratestheforceoftheprincipleherelaiddown。Dowenotseehowsubordinationrisesandfallsunderdifferentreigns，underarichElizabeth，andanecessitousCharles，underapowerfulAustrian，andadistressedBavarianEmperor？Iproceednofartherintheexaminationofthismatter:perhapsmyreaderhasdecidedthatIhavegonetoofaralready。
Fromtheseprinciplesmaybededucedtheboundariesofsubordination。Apeoplewhodependuponnothingbuttheirownindustryfortheirsubsistence，oughttobeundernofarthersubordinationthanwhatisnecessaryfortheirprotection。Andastheprotectionofthewholebodyofsuchapeopleimpliestheprotectionofeveryindividual，soeverypoliticalsubordinationshouldtherebegeneralandequal:noperson，noclassshouldbeunderagreatersubordinationthananother。Thisisthesubordinationofthelaws；andwheneverlawsestablishasubordinationmorethanwhatisproportionatetothedependenceofthosewhoaresubordinate，sofarsuchlawsmaybeconsideredascontrarytonaturalequity，andarbitrary。
Thesethingspremised，Icometothequestionproposed，namely，Howfarparticularformsofgovernmentarefavourableorunfavourabletoacompetitionwithothernations，inpointofcommerce？
Ifwereasonfromfacts，andfromexperience，weshallfind，thattradeandindustryhavebeenfoundtoflourishbestundertherepublicanform，andunderthosewhichhavecomethenearesttoit。MayIbeallowedtosay，that，perhaps，oneprincipalreasonforthishasbeen，thatundertheseformstheadministrationofthelawshasbeenthemostuniform，andconsequently，thatmostlibertyhasactuallybeenthereenjoyed……
Isayactually，becauseIhavesaidabove，thatinmyacceptationoftheterm，libertyisequallycompatiblewithmonarchyaswithdemocracy；Idonotsaytheenjoymentofitisequallysecureunderboth；becauseunderthefirstitismuchmoreliabletobedestroyed。Thelifeofthedemocraticalsystemisequality。
Monarchyconveystheideaofthegreatestinequalitypossible。
Now，if，ononeside，theequalityofthedemocracysecuresliberty；ontheother，themoderationinexpencediscouragesindustry；andif，ononeside，theinequalityofthemonarchyendangersliberty，theprogressofluxuryencouragesindustryontheother。Fromwhencewemayconclude，thatthedemocraticalsystemisnaturallythebestforgivingbirthtoforeigntrade；
themonarchical，fortherefinementoftheluxuriousarts，andforpromotingarapidcirculationofinlandcommerce。
Thedangerwhichlibertyisexposedtoundermonarchy，andthediscouragementtoindustry，fromthefrugalityofthedemocracy，areonlythenaturalandimmediateeffectsofthetwoformsofgovernment；andtheseinconvenienceswilltakeplaceonly，whilestatesmenneglecttheinterestofcommerce，sofarasnottomakeitanobjectofadministration。
Thedisadvantage，therefore，ofthemonarchicalform，inpointoftradeandindustry，doesnotproceedfromtheinequalityitestablishesamongthecitizens，butfromtheconsequenceofthisinequality，whichisveryoftenaccompaniedwithanarbitraryandundeterminatesubordinationbetweentheindividualsofthehigherclasses，andthoseofthelower；orbetweenthosevestedwiththeexecutionofthelaws，andthebodyofthepeople。Themomentitisfoundthatanysubordinationwithinthemonarchy，betweensubjectandsubject，isleftwithoutproperboundsprescribed，libertyissofaratanend。Naymonarchyitselfisherebyhurt，asthisundeterminatesubordinationimpliesanarbitrarypowerinthestate，notvestedinthemonarch。Arbitrarypowernevercanbedelegated；forifitbearbitrary，itmaybeturnedagainstthemonarch，aswellasagainstthesubject。
Imightthereforesay，thatwhensuchapowerinindividualsisconstitutionalinthemonarchy，suchmonarchyisnotagovernment，butatyranny，andthereforefallswithoutthelimitsofoursubject；andwhensuchapowerisanti-constitutional，andyetisexercised，thatitisanabuse，andshouldbeoverlooked。
Butastheplanofthisinquiryengagesmetoinvestigatetheoperationsofgeneralprinciples，andtheconsequencestheyproduce，Icannotomit，inthisplace，topointoutthosewhichflowfromanindeterminatesubordination，fromwhatevercauseitmayproceed。
Whetherthisindeterminatesubordinationbetweenindividuals，beaviceintheconstitutionofthegovernment，oranabuse，itisthesamethingastotheconsequenceswhichresultfromit。Itisthiswhichchecksanddestroysindustry，andwhichinagreatmeasurepreventsitsprogressfrombeingequalinallcountries。
Thisdifferenceintheformoradministrationofgovernments，istheonlyonewhichitisessentiallynecessarytoexamineinthisinquiry。and，soessentialitis，inmyopinion，thatIimagineitwouldbelesshurtful，inaplanfortheestablishmentofcommerce，fairly，andatoncetoenslavethelowerclassesoftheinhabitants，andtomakethemvendiblelikeothercommodities，thantoleavethemnominallyfree，burthenedwiththeirownmaintenance，chargedwiththeeducationoftheirchildren，andatthesametimeunderanirregularsubordination；thatis，liableateverymomenttobeloadedwithnewprestationsorimpositions，eitherinworkorotherwise，andtobefinedorimprisonedatwillbytheirsuperiors。
Itproducesnodifference，whethertheseirregularitiesbeexercisedbythoseofthesuperiorclasses，orbythestatesmanandhissubstitutes。Itistheirregularityoftheexactionsmorethantheextentofthemwhichruinsindustry。Itrenderslivingprecarious，andtheveryideaofindustryshouldcarryalongwithit，notonlyanassuredlivelihood，butacertainprofitoverandabove。
Letimpositionsbeeversohigh，providedtheybeproportional，general，graduallyaugmented，andpermanent，theymayhaveindeedtheeffectofstoppingforeigntrade，andofstarvingtheidle，buttheyneverwillruintheindustrious；asweshallhaveoccasiontoshewintreatingoftaxation。Whereas，whentheyarearbitrary，fallingunequallyuponindividualsofthesamecondition，sudden，andfrequentlychangingtheirobject，itisimpossibleforindustrytostanditsground。Suchasystemofoeconomyintroducesanunequalcompetitionamongthoseofthesameclass，itstopsindustriouspeopleinthemiddleoftheircareer，discouragesothersfromexposingtotheeyesofthepublictheeaseoftheircircumstances，consequentlyencourageshoarding；thisagainexcitesrapaciousnessuponthesideofthestatesman，whoseeshimselffrustratedinhisschemesoflayingholdofprivatewealth。
Fromthisanewsetofinconveniencesfollow。Heturnshisviewsuponsolidproperty。Thisinspiresthelandlordswithindignationagainsthimwhocanloadthematwill；andwithenvyagainstthemoniedinterest，whocanbafflehisattempts。Thisclassagainisconstantlyuponthecatchtoprofitofthepublicdistressforwantofmoney。Whatistheconsequenceofallthis？
Itisthatthelowestclassesofthepeople，whooughtbyindustrytoenrichthestate，findononehandthemoniedinterestconstantlyamassing，inordertolendtothestate，insteadofdistributingamongthem，byseasonableloans，theirsuperfluousincome，withaviewtosharethereasonableprofitsoftheiringenuity；andontheotherhand，theyfindtheemissariesoftaxationrobbingthemoftheseedbeforeitissown，insteadofwaitingforashareintheharvest。
Underthefeudalformofgovernment，libertyandindependencewereconfinedtothenobility。Birthopenedthedoorofprefermenttosome，andbirthaseffectuallyshutitagainstothers。Ihaveoftenobservedhow，byreasonandfromexperience，suchaformofgovernmentmustbeunfavourablebothtotradeandindustry。
Fromreasonitisplain，thatindustrymustgivewealth，andwealthwillgivepower，ifhewhopossessesitbeleftthemastertoemployitashepleases。Agovernmentcouldnotthereforeencourageasystemwhichtendedtothrowpowerintothehandsofthosewhoweremadetoobeyonly。Itwasconsequentlyverynaturalforthenobilitytobejealousofwealthymerchants，andofeveryonewhobecameeasyandindependentbymeansofhisownindustry；experienceprovedhowexactlythisprincipleregulatedtheiradministration。
Astatesmanought，therefore，toconsiderattentivelyeverycircumstanceoftheconstitutionofhiscountry，beforehesetsonfootthemodernsystemoftradeandindustry。Iamfarfrombeingofopinionthatthisistheonlyroadtohappiness，security，andease；though，fromthegeneraltasteofthetimesI
livein，itbethesystemIamprincipallyemployedtoexamine。A
countrymaybeabundantlyhappy，andsufficientlyformidabletothosewhocometoattackit，withoutbeingextremelyrich。Richesindeedareforbidtoallwhohaveneithermines，orforeigntrade。
Ifacountrybefoundlabouringundermanynaturaldisadvantagesfrominlandsituation，barrensoil，distantcarriage，itwouldbeinvaintoattemptacompetitionwithothernationsinforeignmarkets。Allthatcanbethenundertakenisapassivetrade，andthatsofaronlyasitcanbringinadditionalwealth。Whenlittlemoneycanbeacquired，thestatesman’sapplicationmustbe，tomakethatalreadyacquiredtocirculateasmuchaspossible，inordertogivebreadtoeveryoneinthesociety。
Incountrieswherethegovernmentisvestedinthehandsofthegreatlords，asisthecaseinallaristocracies，aswasthecaseunderthefeudalgovernment，andasitstillisthecaseinmanycountriesinEurope，wheretrade，however，andindustryaredailygainingground；thestatesmanwhosetsthenewsystemofpoliticaloeconomyonfoot，maydependuponit，thateitherhisattemptwillfail，ortheconstitutionofthegovernmentwillchange。Ifhedestroysallarbitrarydependencebetweenindividuals，thewealthoftheindustriouswillshare，ifnottotallyrootoutthepowerofthegrandees。Ifheallowssuchadependencetosubsist，hisprojectwillfail。
WhileVeniceandGenoaflourished，theywereobligedtoopenthedoorsoftheirsenatetothewealthycitizens，inordertopreventtheirbeingbrokendown。Whatisvenalnobility？Thechildofcommerce，theindispensibleconsequenceofindustry，andamiddleterm，whichourGothicancestorsfoundthemselvesobligedtoadopt，inordernotentirelytolosetheirownrankinthestate。Money，theyfound，mustcarryoffthefasces，sic，sotheychoserathertoadoptthewealthyplebeians，andtoclotheignobleshoulderswiththeirpurplemantle，thantoallowthesetowrestallauthorityoutofthehandsofthehigherclass。Bythisexpedient，asuddenrevolutionhasoftenbeenprevented。Somekingdomshavebeenquitforabloodyrebellionoralongcivilwar。Othercountrieshavelikewisedemonstratedtheforceoftheprinciplesherelaiddown:awealthypopulacehasbrokentheirchainstopieces，andoverturnedtheveryfoundationsofthefeudalsystem。
Alltheseviolentconvulsionshavebeenowingtotheshort-sightednessofstatesmen；who，inattentivetotheconsequencesofgrowingwealthandindustry，foolishlyimaginedthathereditarysubordinationwastosubsistamongclasses，whosesituation，withrespecttoeachother，wasentirelychanged。
ThepretoriancohortswereatfirstsubordinatetotheordersoftheEmperors，andweretheguardsofthecityofRome。TheJanissariesareunderstoodtobeunderthecommandoftheprincipalofficersofthePort。SosoonastheleadingmenofRomeandConstantinople，whonaturallywereentitledtogovernthestate，appliedtothesetumultuousbodiesfortheirprotectionandassistance，theyintheirturn，madesensibleoftheirownimportance，changedtheconstitution，andsharedinthegovernment。
Amilderrevolution，entirelysimilar，istakingplaceinmoderntimes；andanattentivespectatormayfindamusementinviewingtheprogressofitinmanystatesofEurope。Tradeandindustryareinvogue；andtheirestablishmentisoccasioningawonderfulfermentationwiththeremainingfiercenessofthefeudalconstitution。
Tradeandindustryowedtheirestablishmenttowarandtoambition；andperhapsmankindmayhopetoseethedaywhenthisestablishmentwillputanendtothefirst，byexposingtheexpensivefollyofthelatter。
Tradeandindustry，Isay，owedtheirestablishmenttotheambitionofprinceswhosupportedandfavouredtheplaninthebeginning，principallywithaviewtoenrichthemselves，andtherebytobecomeformidabletotheirneighbours。Buttheydidnotdiscover，untilexperiencetaughtthem，thatthewealththeydrewfromsuchfountainswasbuttheoverflowingofthespring；
andthatanopulent，bold，andspiritedpeople，havingthefundoftheprince’swealthintheirownhands，haveitalsointheirownpower，whenitbecomesstronglytheirinclination，toshakeoffhisauthority。Theconsequenceofthischangehasbeentheintroductionofamoremild，andamoreregularplanofadministration。Themoneygatherersarebecomemoreusefultoprinces，thanthegreatlords；andthosewhoarefertileinexpedientsforestablishingpubliccredit，andfordrawingmoneyfromthecoffersoftherich，bytheimpositionoftaxes，havebeenpreferredtothemostwiseandmostlearnedcounsellors。
Asthissystemisnew，nowonderifithasproducedphenomenabothnewandsurprising。Formerly，thepowerofPrinceswasemployedtodestroyliberty，andtoestablisharbitrarysubordination；butinourdays，wehaveseenthosewhohavebestcomprehendedthetrueprinciplesofthenewplanofpolitics，arbitrarilylimitingthepowerofthehigherclasses，andtherebyapplyingtheirauthoritytowardstheextensionofpublicliberty，byextinguishingeverysubordination，butthatduetotheestablishedlaws。
Thefundamentalmaximofsomeofthegreatestministers，hasbeentorestrainthepowerofthegreatlords。Thenaturalinferencethatpeopledrewfromsuchastep，was，thattheministertherebyintendedtomakeeverythingdependontheprince’swillonly。ThisIdonotdeny。Butwhatusehaveweseenmadeofthisnewacquisitionofpower？Thosewholookintoeventswithapoliticaleye，mayperceiveseveralactsofthemostarbitraryauthorityexercisedbysomelateEuropeansovereigns，withnootherviewthantoestablishpubliclibertyuponamoreextensivebottom。
Andalthoughtheprerogativeofsomeprincesbeincreasedconsiderablybeyondtheboundsoftheancientconstitution，eventosuchadegreeasperhapsjustlytodeservethenameofusurpation；yettheconsequencesresultingfromtherevolution，cannoteverywherebesaid，uponthewhole，tohaveimpairedwhatIcallpublicliberty。Ishouldbeatnolosstoprovethisassertionfrommattersoffact，andbyexamples，didIthinkitproper:itseemsbettertoproveitfromreason。
Whenonceastatebeginstosubsistbytheconsequencesofindustry，thereislessdangertobeapprehendedfromthepowerofthesovereign。Themechanismofhisadministrationbecomesmorecomplex，and，aswasobservedintheintroductiontothefirstbook，hefindshimselfsoboundupbythelawsofhispoliticaloeconomy，thateverytransgressionofthemrunshimintonewdifficulties。
Ispeakofgovernmentsonlywhichareconductedsystematically，constitutionally，andbygenerallaws；andwhenI
mentionprinces，Imeantheircouncils。TheprinciplesIamenquiringinto，regardthecooladministrationoftheirgovernment；itbelongstoanotherbranchofpolitics，tocontrivebulwarksagainsttheirpassions，vicesandweaknesses，asmen。
Isay，therefore，thatfromthetimestateshavebeguntobesupportedbytheconsequencesofindustry，theplanofadministrationhasbecomemoremoderate；hasbeenchangingandrefiningbydegrees；andeverychange，ashasbeenoftenobserved，mustbeaccompaniedwithinconveniences。
Itisofgovernmentsasofmachines，themoretheyaresimple，themoretheyaresolidandlasting；themoretheyareartfullycomposed，themoretheybecomeuseful；butthemoreapttheyaretobeoutoforder。
TheLacedemonianformmaybecomparedtothewedge，themostsolidandcompactofallthemechanicalpowers。Thoseofmodernstatestowatches，whicharecontinuallygoingwrong；sometimesthespringisfoundtooweak，atothertimestoostrongforthemachine:andwhenthewheelsarenotmadeaccordingtoadeterminateproportion，bytheablehandsofaGraham，oraJulienleRoy，theydonottallywellwithoneanother；thenthemachinestops，andifitbeforced，somepartgivesway；andtheworkman’shandbecomesnecessarytosetitright。
Chap。XIV
Security，EaseandHappiness，noinseparableConcomitantsofTradeandIndustryTherepublicofLycurgusrepresentsthemostperfectplanofpoliticaloeconomy，inmyhumbleopinion，anywheretobemetwith，eitherinancientormoderntimes。Thatitexistedcannotbecalledinquestion，anymorethanthatitprovedthemostdurableofallthoseestablishedamongtheGreeks；andifatlastitcametofail，itwasmorefromtheabuseswhichgraduallywereintroducedintoit，thanfromanyviceintheform。
Thesimplicityoftheinstitutionmadethesolidityofit；
andhadtheLacedemoniansatalltimesadheredtotheprinciplesoftheirgovernment，andspiritoftheirconstitution，theymighthaveperhapssubsistedtothisveryday。
Myintention，inthischapter，isnottoenterintoacriticaldisquisitionconcerningthemechanismofeverypartoftheSpartanrepublic；buttocomparethegeneralplanofLycurgus’spoliticaloeconomywiththeprincipleswehavebeenlayingdown。
OfthisplanwehaveadescriptioninthelifeofthislegislatorwrittenbyPlutarch，oneofthemostjudiciousauthorstobemetwithinanyage。
Thishistorianflourishedatleast800yearsaftertheinstitutionoftheplanhedescribes。Aplanneverreducedintoasystemofwrittenlaws，butstampedatfirstuponthemindsoftheSpartansbytheimmediateauthorityofthegods，whichmadethemsubmittothemostviolentrevolutionthatperhapsevertookplaceinanynation，andwhichtheysupportedforsomanyagesbytheforceofeducationalone。
AsthewholeofLycurgus’slawswastransmittedbytraditiononly，itisnottobesupposed，thatthedescriptionPlutarch，orindeedanyoftheancients，havegivenusofthisrepublic，canbedependedonwithcertaintyasajustrepresentationofeverypartofthesystemlaiddownbythatgreatstatesman。Butontheotherhand，wemaybeverysure，thatastotheoutlinesoftheinstitution，wehavethemtransmittedtousinalltheirpurity’。
and，inwhatrelatestomysubject，IhavenooccasiontotouchonanyparticularswhichmayadmitofthesmAllestcontroversy，astothematteroffact。
PropertyamongtheLacedemonians，atthetimewhenLycurgusplannedhisinstitution，wasveryunequallydivided:theconsequenceofwhich，saysourhistorian，wastodrawmanypoorpeopleintothecity，wherethewealthwasgatheredintofewhands；thatisaccordingtoourlanguage，theluxuryoftherich，wholivedinthecity，hadpurgedthelandsofuselessmouths，andtheinstabilityofthegovernmenthadrenderedindustryprecarious，whichmusthaveopenedthedoortogeneraldistressamongallthelowerclasses。
Thefirststepourlegislatortook，wastopreparethespiritofthepeople，soastoengagethemtosubmittoatotalreform，whichcouldnotfailofbeingattendedwithinnumerableinconveniences。
ForthispurposehewenttoDelphi，withouthavingcommunicatedhisdesigntoanybody。ThePythiadeclaredhimtobethedarlingofthegods，andratheragodthanaman；andpubliclygaveout，thatApollohaddeliveredtohimalonetheplanofarepublicwhichfarexceededeveryotherinperfection。
Whatapowerfulenginewasthisinthehandsofaprofoundpolitician，whohadtravelledovertheworldwithapreviousintentiontoexplorethemysteriesofthescienceofgovernment！
andwhatadvantagesdidsuchanauthenticrecommendation，comingdirectlyaswasbelievedfromthevoiceoftheDivinity，givehimoverasuperstitiouspeople，inestablishingwhateverformofgovernmenthethoughtmostproper！
ThesagaciousLacedemoniandidnot，however，entirelydependupontheblindsubmissionofhiscountrymentothedictatesoftheoracle；butwiselyjudgedthatsomepreparatorystepsmightstillbenecessary。Hecommunicated，therefore，hisplan，firsttohisfriends，andthenbydegreestotheprincipalpeopleofthestate，whocertainlynevercouldhavebeenbroughttorelishaninnovationsoprejudicialtotheirinterest，haditnotbeenfromthedeepestreverenceandsubmissiontothewillofthegods。Assuredoftheirassistance，heappearedinthemarketplace，accompaniedbyhisparty，allinarms；andhavingimposedrespect，helaidthefoundationofhisgovernmentbythenominationofasenate。
Whateverregardsanyotherobjectthanhisplanofpoliticaloeconomy，shallbeherepassedoverinsilence。Itisofnoconsequencetomyinquiry，wherethesupremepowerwasvested:itissufficienttoknowthattherewasanauthorityenoughinthestatetosupporttheexecutionofhisplan。
Hedestroyedallinequalityatonestroke。Thepropertyofallthelandsofthestatewasthrowntogether，andbecameatthedisposalofthelegislator。Everybranchofindustrywasproscribedtothecitizens。Andamoniedinterestwasmadetodisappear，bytheintroductionofironcoin。Thelandshedividedintoequallots，accordingtothenumberofcitizens。
Thusallwererenderedentirelyequalinpointoffortune，asneitherwealth，industry，orlands，couldgiveasuperioritytoanybody。FromthispartoftheplanIconclude，thatLycurgusdiscoveredtheutterinsufficiencyofanagrarianlawforestablishingequalityamongtheindividualsofastate，withoutproscribing，atthesametime，bothwealthandindustry。A
circumstancewhichseemstohaveescapedeveryotherstatesmaninancienttimes，aswellasthemodernpatronsofequalityandsimplicityofmanners。ThelandswerecultivatedbytheHelotes，whowerenourishedfromthem，andwhowereobligedtodeliverthesurplus，thatis，adeterminatequantityoffruits，totheproprietorofthelot。Everynecessarymechanicartwaslikewiseexercisedbythisbodyofslaves。
Bythisdistribution，theproduceoftheearththatiseveryarticleofnourishmentcamefreeandwithoutcosttoeveryindividualofthestate。TheSpartanlandlordswereratheroverseersoftheslaves，andcollectorsofthepublicsubsistence，thandirectproprietorsofthesoilwhichproducedit。Foralthougheverymanwasfedfromhisownlands，andprovidedhisownportion，yetthisportionwasregulated，andwastobeconsumedinpublic；andanyonewhopretendedtoeatalone，orbeforehecametothepublichall，washeldintheutmostcontempt。
Theirclothingwasthemostsimplepossible，perfectlyalike，andcouldbepurchasedforasmallvalue。Thisfrugalityproducednobadeffect；becausenomanlivedbyhisindustry。Arts，ashasbeensaid，wereexercisedbytheHelotes，thepropertyofprivatecitizens；andifsuchmastersasentertainedmanufacturingslavesgainedbythetrafficassomemustdoeverymethodofprofitingoftheirsuperiorricheswascutoff。
TheSpartanswerecontinuallytogether；theyhadnothingtodobuttodivertthemselves；andtheiramusementsweremostlymartialexercises。Theregulationsofthesenumerousassemblieswhichwerecompared，withgreateleganceandjustness，toswarmsofbeescutoffalloutwardmarksofdistinction。Therewasnotapossibilityforluxurytointroduceitself，eitherineating，drinking，cloathing，furniture，oranyotherexpence。
Herethenwasawholenationfedandprovidedforgratuitously；therewasnottheleastoccasionforindustry。theusefulnessofwhich，wehaveshewnprincipallytoconsistinitsprovinganexpedientforprocuringforthenecessitous，whattheSpartansfoundprovidedforthemwithoutlabour。
Undersuchcircumstanceswemayconclude，fromtheprincipleswehavelaiddown，thatapeoplethusabundantlynourished，musthavemultipliedexceedingly。Andsonodoubttheydid。Buttheregulationofthelotspermittednomorethanafixednumberofcitizens。Whenever，therefore，numberswerefoundtoexceedthisstandard，thesupernumerariesweredismissed，andsenttoformcolonies。AndwhentheHelotesincreasedtoomuch，andtherebybegantoriseabovetheproportionofthelabourrequiredofthem，inordertopreventtheconsumingthefoodoftheirmasters，whichtheyhadintheirhands，andtherebybecomingidle，licentious，andconsequentlydangeroustothestate，itwaspermittedtodestroythembywayofamilitaryexercise，conductedbystratagemandaddress；artswhichthispeopleconstantlypreferredinwar，tolabour，strengthandintrepidity。
Thisappearsaverybarbarouscustom，andIshallnotofferanythingasanapologyforit，buttheferocityofthemannersofthosetimes。Abstractingfromthecruelty，therestrainingthenumbersofthisclasswithincertainlimits，wasabsolutelynecessary。TheLacedemonianslaveswereinmanyrespectsfarhappierthanthoseofothernations。Theywereinrealityabodyoffarmers，whichpaidacertainquantityoffruitsoutofeverylot；towit，70medimniofbarley:theirnumberswerenotrecruitedfromabroad，aselsewhere，butsupportedbytheirownpropagation；consequentlytherewasanabsolutenecessityeithertopreventtheovermultiplicationofthem，ortodiminishanincomeproportionedexactlytothenecessitiesofthestate:andwhatexpedientcouldbefallenupon？Theywereslaves，andtherefore，couldnotbeinrolledinthenumberofcitizens；theycouldnotbesoldtostrangers，formoneywhichwasforbid；andtheywereofnousetoindustry。Nowonderthenifthefiercenessofthemannersofthosedayspermittedtheinhumantreatmenttheyreceived；which，however，PlutarchisfarfromattributingtotheprimitiveinstitutionofLycurgus。Besides，whenweseethatthefreementhemselveswereobligedtoquitthecountrythemomenttheirnumbersexceededacertainstandard，itwasnottobeexpected，thatuselessslavesshouldbepermittedtomultiplyatdiscretion。
FromthissketchofLycurgus’spoliticaloeconomy，wefindthestateabundantlyprovidedwitheverynecessaryarticle；aneffectualstopputtoabusiveprocreationamongthecitizens；andacorrectivefortheovermultiplicationoftheslaves。Thenextcareofastatesmanistoregulatetheemploymentofapeople。
Everyfreemaninthestatewasbredupfromhisinfancytoarms。Nofamilycarecouldpreventhimfromservingthestateasasoldier:hischildrenwerenoloaduponhim；itwasthebusinessoftheHelotestosupplythemwithprovisions:oftheservantsintowntopreparethese，andthepublictableswerealwaysreadyfurnished。ThewholeyouthofSpartawaseducatednotasthechildrenoftheirparents，butofthestate。Theyimbibedthesamesentimentsoffrugality，temperance，andloveofsimplicity。Theyexercisedthesameemployment，andwereoccupiedinthesamewayineveryrespect。ThesimplicityofLycurgus’splan，renderedthisapracticablescheme。Themultiplicityandvarietyofemploymentsamongus，makesitabsolutelynecessarytotrusttheparentswiththeeducationoftheirchildren；whereasinSparta，therewerenottwoemploymentsforafreeman；therewasneitherorator，lawyer，physician，orpolitician，byprofessiontobefound。Theinstitutionsoftheirlawgiverwereconstantlyinculcatedbytheolduponthemindsoftheyoung；
everythingtheyheardorsaw，wasrelativetowar。Theverygodswererepresentedinarmour，andeveryprecepttheyweretaught，tendedtobanishsuperfluity，andtoestablishmoderationandhardliving。
Theyouthwerecontinuallystrivingtogetherinallmilitaryexercises；suchasboxingandwrestling。Tokeepup，therefore，aspiritofemulation，andtobanishanimosityatthesametime，sharp，satiricalexpressionsweremuchencouraged；butthesewerealwaystobeseasonedwithsomethinggraciousorpolite。Thegravedemeanourlikewise，anddowncastlookwhichtheywereorderedtoobserveinthestreets，andtheinjunctionofkeepingtheirhandswithintheirrobes，mightverynaturallybecalculatedtopreventquarrels，andespeciallyblows，attimeswhentheauthorityofapublicassemblycouldnotmoderatethevivacityoftheirpassions。Bythesearts，theSpartanslivedingreatharmonyinthemidstofacontinualwar。
Undersuchregulationsapeoplemustenjoysecurityfromforeignattacks；andcertainlytheintentionofthelegislatorneverwastoextendthelimitsofLaconiabyconquest。WhatpeoplecouldeverthinkofattackingtheLacedemonians，wherenothingbutblowscouldbeexpected？
Theyenjoyedeaseinthemostsupremedegree；theywereabundantlyprovidedwitheverynecessaryoflife；although，I
confess，theenjoymentofthese，insoaustereamanner，wouldnotberelishedbyanymodernsociety。Buthabitisallinthingsofthiskind。Acoarsemeal，toagoodstomach，hasmorerelishthanallthedelicaciesofthemostexquisitepreparationtoadepravedappetite；andifthepleasuresoflovebereckonedamongthepleasuresoflife，enoughofitmighthavebeenmetwithinthemannersofthispeople。Itdoesnotbelongtomysubjecttoenterintoparticulardetailsonthishead。Butthemostrationalpleasureamongmen，thedelightfulcommunicationofsociety，washereenjoyedtotheutmostextent。Thewholerepublicwascontinuallygatheredtogetherinbodies，andtheirstudies，theiroccupationsandtheiramusements，werethesame。Onetastewasuniversal；andtheyoungandtheoldbeingconstantlytogether，thefirstundertheimmediateinspectionandauthorityofthelatter，thesamesentimentsweretransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration。TheSpartansweresopleased，andsosatisfiedwiththeirsituation，thattheydespisedthemannersofeveryothernation。Ifthisdoesnottransmitanideaofhappiness，Iamatalosstoformone。Security，ease，andhappiness，therefore，arenotinseparableconcomitantsoftradeandindustry。
Lycurgushadpenetrationenoughtoperceivetheweaksideofhisinstitution。Hewasnostrangertotheseducinginfluenceofluxury；andplainlyforesaw，thattheconsequencesofindustry，whichprocurestomankindagreatvarietyofnewobjectsofdesire，andawonderfulfacilityinsatisfyingthem，wouldeasilyrootouttheprincipleshehadendeavouredtoinstilintohiscountrymen，ifthestateofsimplicityshouldevercometobecorruptedbyforeigncommunications。Heaffected，therefore，tointroduceseveralcustomswhichcouldnotfailofdisgustingandshockingthedelicacyofneighbouringstates。Hepermittedthedeadtobeburiedwithinthewalls；thehandlingofdeadbodieswasnotreckonedpollutionamongtheLacedemonians。Heforbadebathing，sonecessaryforcleanlinessinahotcountry；andthecoarsenessanddirtinessoftheircloaths，andsweatfromtheirhardexercises，couldnotfailtodisguststrangersfromcomingamongthem。Ontheotherhand，nothingwasfoundatSpartawhichcouldengageastrangertowishtobecomeoneoftheirnumber。
Andtopreventthecontagionofforeigncustomsfromgettingin，bymeansofthecitizensthemselves，heforbadetheSpartanstotravel；andexcludedfromanyemploymentinthestate，thosewhohadgotaforeigneducation。NothingindeedbutaSpartanbreedingcouldhavefittedapersontoliveamongthem。
ThetheftencouragedamongtheLacedemonianswascalculatedtomakethemartfulanddextrous；andcontainednotthesmallesttinctureofvice。Itwasgenerallyofsomethingeatable，andthefrugalityoftheirtablepromptedthemtoit；whileontheotherhand，theirbeingexposedtothelikereprisals，madethemwatchfulandcarefulofwhatbelongedtothemselves；andthepleasureofpunishinganunsuccessfulattempt，inpartindemnifiedthemforthetroubleofbeingconstantlyupontheirguard。ALacedemonianhadnothingofanyvaluethatcouldbestolen；anditisthedesireandintentionofmakingunlawfulgainwhichrendersthefteithercriminalorscandalous。
ThehiddenintercoursebetweentheSpartansandtheiryoungwiveswasnodoubt，calculatedtoimpressuponthemindsofthefairsex，thewidedifferencethereisbetweenanactofimmodesty，andthatofsimplyappearingnakedinthepublicexercises；twothingswhichweareapttoconfound，fromtheimpressionofourowncustomsonly。Iampersuadedthatmanyayoungpersonhasfelthermodestyasmuchhurtbytakingoffherhandkerchief，thefirsttimesheappearedatcourt，asanyLacedemoniangirlcouldhavedonebystrippingbeforeathousandpeople；yetbothherreasonandcommonsense，mustmakehersensibleofthedifferencebetweenacompliancewithacustominamatterofdress，andapalpabletransgressionagainstthelawsofherhonour，andthemodestyofhersex。
IhavecalledthisLacedemonianrepublicaperfectplanofpoliticaloeconomy；becauseitwasasystem，uniformandconsistentinallitsparts。There，nosuperfluitywasnecessary，becausetherewasnooccasionforindustry，togivebreadtoanybody。There，nosuperfluitywaspermitted，becausethemomentthelimitsoftheabsolutelynecessaryaretransgressed，thedegreesofexcessarequiteindeterminate，andbecomepurelyrelative。
Thesamethingwhichappearssuperfluitytoapeasant，appearsnecessarytoacitizen；andtheutmostluxuryofthisclassfrequentlydoesnotcomeuptowhatisthoughtthemerenecessaryforoneinahigherrank。Lycurgusstoptattheonlydeterminedfrontier，thepurephysicalnecessary。Allbeyondthiswasconsideredasabusive。
TheonlythingsincommerceamongtheSpartanswere，First，Whatmightremaintothemofthefruitsoftheirlot，overtheirownconsumption；andsecondly，Theworkoftheslavesemployedintrades。Thenumbersofthesecouldnotbemany，asthetimberoftheirhouseswasworkedwiththesawandaxeonly；
andeveryutensilwasmadewiththegreatestsimplicity。Asmallquantity，therefore，ofironcoin，asIimagine，musthavebeensufficientforcarryingonthecirculationatSparta。Theverynatureoftheirwantsmust，asIhavesaid，terminatealltheircommerce，intheexchangeofthesurplus-foodoftheirportionsofland，withtheworkofthemanufacturingslaves，whomusthavebeenfedfromit。
AstheLacedemonianshadnomercantilecommunicationswithothernations，theironcoinwasnomorethanabanknoteofnointrinsicvalue，asIsuppose，butamiddletermintroducedforkeepingaccounts，andforfacilitatingbarter。Anadditionalargumentforthisopinionofthecoinbeingofnointrinsicvalue，is，thatitissaidtohavebeenrenderedunserviceableforotheruses，bybeingslakedinvinegar；inorderconsequentlytodestroy，astheyimagined，anyintrinsicvaluewhichmightotherwiseremain。Ifthiscoin，therefore，wasmadeofanextra-ordinaryweight，itmusthavebeenentirelywithapoliticalviewofdiscouragingcommerceandcirculation，aninstitutionquiteconsistentwiththegeneralplan，andnowiseaconsequenceofthebasenessofthemetalofwhichitwasmade:asmallquantityofthis，withthestampofpublicauthorityforitscurrencyandvalue，wouldhaveansweredeverypurposeequallywell。
Letmenowconcludethischapterbyanillustrationofthesubject，whichwillstillmoreclearlypointouttheforceoftheprinciplesuponwhichthisLacedemonianrepublicwasestablished。
WereanyPrinceinEurope，whosesubjects，Ishallsuppose，mayamounttosixmillionsofinhabitants，onehalfemployedinagriculture，theotherhalfemployedintradeandindustry，orlivinguponarevenuealreadyacquired；weresuchaPrince，I
say，supposedtohaveauthoritysufficienttoengagehispeopletoadoptanewplanofoeconomy，calculatedtosecurethemagainstthedesignsofapowerfulneighbour，who，Ishallsuppose，hasformedschemesofinvadingandsubduingthem。
Lethimengagethewholeproprietorsoflandtorenouncetheirseveralpossessions:orifthatsuppositionshouldappeartooabsurd，lethimcontractdebtstothevalueofthewholepropertyofthenation；lettheland-taxbeimposedattwentyshillingsinthepound，andthenlethimbecomebankrupttothecreditors。Lettheincomeofallthelandsbecollectedthroughoutthecountryfortheuseofthestate；letalltheluxuriousartsbeproscribed；andletthoseemployedinthembeformed，underthecommandoftheformerlandproprietors，intoabodyofregulartroops，officersandsoldiers，providedwitheverythingnecessaryfortheirmaintenance，andthatoftheirwivesandfamiliesatthepublicexpence。Letmecarrythesuppositionfarther。Leteverysuperfluitybecutoff；letthepeasantsbeenslaved，andobligedtolabourthegroundwithnoviewofprofittothemselves，butforsimplesubsistence；lettheuseofgoldandsilverbeproscribed；andletallthesemetalsbeshutupinapublictreasure。Letnoforeigntrade，andverylittledomesticbeencouraged；butleteveryman，willingtoserveasasoldier，bereceivedandtakencareof；andthosewhoeitherinclinetobeidle，orwhoarefoundsuperfluous，besentoutofthecountry。Iask，whatconfederacyamongthemodernEuropeanPrinces，wouldcarryonasuccessfulwaragainstsuchapeople？Whatarticlewouldbewantingtotheirease，thatis，totheiramplesubsistence？Theirhappinesswoulddependuponthetemperoftheirmind。Andwhatcountrycoulddefenditselfagainsttheattackofsuchanenemy？Suchasystemofpoliticaloeconomy，Ireadilygrant，isnotlikelytotakeplace:butifeveritdid，woulditnoteffectuallydashtopiecesthewholefabricoftradeandindustrywhichhasbeenformingforsomanyyears？Andwoulditnotquicklyobligeeveryothernationtoadopt，asfaraspossible，asimilarconduct，fromaprincipleofself-preservation。
Chap。XV
AgeneralViewofthePrinciplestobeattendedtobyaStatesman，whoresolvestoestablishTradeandIndustryuponalastingFootingThetwoprecedingchaptersIhaveintroducedpurposelytoswerveasanillustrationofgeneralprinciples，andasarelaxationtothemind，likeafarcebetweentheactsofaseriousopera。InowreturntotheplacewhereIbrokeoffmysubject，attheendofthetwelfthchapter。
Itisagreatassistancetomemory，nowandthentoassembleourideas，aftercertainintervals，ingoingthroughanextensivesubject。Everybranchofitmust，insettingout，betreatedwithsimplicity，andallcombinationsnotabsolutelynecessary，mustbebanishedfromthetheory。Whenthistheoryagaincomestobeappliedtoexamples，combinationswillcrowdin，andeveryoneofthesemustbeattendedto。
Forthisreasonnothingcanappearmoreinconsistentthanthespiritwhichrunsthroughsomepartsofthisbook，ifcomparedwiththatwhichprevailedinthefirst。Thereluxurywaslookedonwithafavourableeye，andeveryaugmentationofsuperfluitywasconsideredasamethodofadvancingpopulation。Wewerethenemployedindrawingmankind，as，itwere，outofastateofidleness，inordertoincreasetheirnumbers，andengagethemtocultivatetheearth。Wehadnooccasiontodividethemintosocietieshavingseparateinterests，becausetheprincipleswetreatedofwerecommontoall。Wethereforeconsideredtheindustrious，whoaretheproviders，andtheluxurious，whoaretheconsumers，aschildrenofthesamefamily，andasbeingunderthecareofthesamefather。
Wearenowengagedinamorecomplexoperation；werepresentdifferentsocieties，animatedwithadifferentspirit；somegiventoindustryandfrugality，otherstodissipationandluxury。Thiscreatesseparateinterestsamongnations，andeveryonemustbesupposedtobeunderthegovernmentofastatesman，whoiswhollytakenupinadvancingthegoodofthosehegoverns，thoughattheexpenceofothersocietieswhichlieroundhim。
Thispresentsanewidea，andgivesbirthtonewprinciples。
Thegeneralsocietyofmankindtreatedofinthefirstbook，ishereinamannerdividedintotwo:theindustriousprovidersaresupposedtoliveinonecountry，theluxuriousconsumersinanother。Theprinciplesofthefirstbookremainhereinfullvigour。Luxurystilltendsasmuchasevertotheadvancementofindustry，thestatesman’sbusinessonlyis，toremovetheseatofitfromhisowncountry。Whenthiscanbeaccomplishedwithoutdetrimenttoindustryathome，hehasanopportunityofjoiningalltheadvantagesofancientsimplicitytothewealthandpowerwhichattendupontheluxuryofmodernstates。Hemaypreservehispeopleinsobriety，andmoderationastoeveryexpence，astoeveryconsumption，andmakethemenjoy，atthesametime，richesandsuperiorityoveralltheirneighbours。
Suchwouldbethestateoftradingnations，weretheyemployedinsupplyingthewantsorextravagantconsumptionofstrangersonly，anddidtheynotinsensiblyadopttheverymannerswithwhichtheystrivetoinspireothers。
Asoften，therefore，aswesupposeapeopleapplyingthemselvestotheadvancementofforeigntrade，wemustsimplifyourideas，bydismissingallpoliticalcombinationsofothercircumstances；thatistosay，wemustsupposethisspirituniversal，andthenpointouttheprincipleswhichinfluencethesuccessofit。
Wemustencourageoeconomy，frugality，andasimplicityofmanners，discouragetheconsumptionofeverythingthatcanbeexported，andexciteatasteforsuperfluityinneighbouringnations。Whensuchasystemcannomorebesupportedtoitsfullextent，bythescaleofforeigndemandbecomingpositivelylighter；theninordertosetthebalanceevenagain，withouttakinganythingoutoftheheavierscale，andtopreserveandtogivebreadtothosewhohaveenrichedthestate；anadditionalhomeconsumption，proportionedtothedeficiencyofforeigndemand，mustbeencouraged。Forwerethesamesimplicityofmannersstillkeptup，theinfallibleconsequencewouldbeaforcedrestitutionofthebalance，bythedistress，misery，andatlastextinctionofthesupernumeraryworkmen。
Imusttherefore，uponsuchoccasions，considertheintroductionofluxury，orsuperfluousconsumption，asarationalandmoralconsequenceofthedeficiencyofforeigntrade。
Iam，however，farfromthinkingthattheluxuryofeverymodernstate，isinproportiononlytosuchfailure；andI
readilyadmit，thatmanyexamplesmaybeproducedwheretheprogressofluxuryathomeandthedomesticcompetitionswithstrangerswhocometomarket，havebeenthecausebothofthedeclineandextinctionoftheirforeign，tradebutasmybusinessischieflytopointoutprinciples，andtoshewtheireffects，itisheresufficienttoobserve，thatinproportionasforeigntradedeclines，eitheraproportionalaugmentationuponhomeconsumptionmusttakeplace，oranumberoftheindustrious，proportionedtothediminutionofformerconsumption，mustdecrease。Bythefirst，whatIcallanaturalrestitutionofthebalanceisbroughtabout，fromtheprinciplesabovededuced；bythesecond，whatIcallaforcedone。
Herethenisanexample，wheretheintroductionofluxurymaybearationalandprudentstepofadministration；andaslongastheprogressofitisnotacceleratedfromanyothermotive，butthatofpreservingtheindustrious，bygivingthememployment；
thesamespirit，underthedirectionofanablestatesman，willsoonthrowindustryintoanewchannel，bettercalculatedforrevivingforeigntrade，andforpromotingthepublicgood，bysubstitutingthecallofforeignersinsteadofthatofdomesticluxury。
Ihope，fromwhatIhavesaid，thatthepoliticaleffectsofluxury，ortheconsumptionofsuperfluity，aresufficientlyunderstood。TheseIhavehithertoconsideredasadvantageoustothoseclassesonlywhoaremadetosubsistbythem；Ireserveforanotheroccasionthepointingouthowtheyinfluencetheimpositionoftaxes，andhowtheabuseofconsumptionintherichmayaffecttheprosperityofastate。
Sosoonasallforeigntradehascometoastop，withoutaschemeforrecallingit，anddomesticconsumptionhasfilledupitsplaceinconsumingthework，andgivingbreadtotheindustrious，wefundourselvesobligedtoreasonagainupontheprinciplesofthefirstbook。Thestatesmanhasoncemoreboththeproducersandtheconsumersunderhiscare。Theconsumerscanlivewithoutemployment，theproducerscannot。Thefirstseldomhaveoccasionforthestatesman’sprotection；thelastconstantlystandinneedofit。Thereisaperpetualfluctuationinthebalancebetweenthesetwoclasses，fromwhichamultitudeofnewprinciplesarise；andtheserendertheadministrationofgovernmentinfinitelymoredifficult，andrequiresuperiortalentsinthepersonwhoisatthehelm。Ishallherepointoutthemoststrikingeffectsonlyofthefluctuationandoverturnofthisnewbalance，whichinthesubsequentchaptersshallbemorefullyillustrated。
First，Inproportionastheconsumersbecomeextravagant，theproducersbecomewealthy；andwhentheformerbecomebankrupts，thelatterfilltheirplace。
Secondly，Astheformerbecomefrugalandoeconomical，thelatterlanguish；whenthosebegintohoard，andtoadoptasimplelife，theseareextinguished:allextremesarevicious。
Thirdly，Iftheproduceofindustryconsumedinacountrysurpasstheincomeofthosewhodonotwork，thebalanceduebytheconsumersmustbepaidtothesuppliersbyaproportionalalienationoftheirfunds。Thisvibrationofthebalancegivesaverycorrectideaofwhatismeantbyrelativeprofitandloss。
Thenationherelosesnothingbythechangeproduced。
Fourthly，When，ontheotherhand，theannualproduceofindustryconsumedinacountry，doesnotamounttothevalueoftheincomeofthosewhodonotwork，thebalanceofincomesaved；
musteitherbelockedupinchests，madeintoplate，lenttoforeigners，orfairlyexportedasthepriceofforeignconsumption。
Fifthly，Thescalesstandevenwhenthereisnobalanceoneitherside；thatis，whenthedomesticconsumptionisjustequivalenttotheannualincomeofthefunds。Idonotpretendtodecideatpresentwhetherthisexactequilibriummarksthestateofperfectioninacountrywherethereisnoforeigntrade，ofwhichwearenowtreating，orwhetheritwouldbebettertohavesmallvibrationsbetweenthetwoscales；butIthinkImaysay，thatallsubversionsofthebalanceoneithersidemustbehurtful，andthereforeshouldbeprevented。
Letthissufficeatpresent，uponasubjectwhichshallbemorefullytreatedofafterwards。
Letusnextfixourattentionupontheinterestsofapeopleentirelytakenupintheprosecutionofforeigntrade。Solongasthisspiritprevails，Isay，thatitisthedutyofastatesmantoencouragefrugality，sobriety，andanapplicationtolabourinhisownpeople，andtoexciteinforeignnationsatasteforsuperfluitiesasmuchaspossible。
Whileapeopleareoccupiedintheprosecutionofforeigntrade，themutualrelationsbetweentheindividualsofthestate，willnotbesointimateaswhentheproducersandconsumersliveinthesamesociety；suchtradeimplies，andevennecessarilycreatesachainofforeigndependences；whichproportionallydiminishthemutualdependencewhichformerlysubsistedamongthecitizens。Nowtheuseofdependences，Ihavesaid，istoformabandofsociety，capableofmakingthenecessitoussubsistoutofthesuperfluitiesoftherich，andtokeepmankindinpeaceandharmonywithoneanother。
Trade，therefore，andforeigncommunications，formanewkindofasocietyamongnations；andconsequentlyrendertheoccupationofstatesmanmorecomplex。Hemust，asbefore，beattentivetoprovidefood，othernecessariesandemploymentforallhispeople；butastheforeignconnectionsmaketheseverycircumstancesdependupontheentertainingagoodcorrespondencewithneighbouringnations，hemustacquireaproperknowledgeoftheirdomesticsituation，soastoreconcile，asmuchasmaybe，theinterestsofbothparties，byengagingthestrangerstofurnisharticlesofthefirstnecessity，whenthepreciousmetalscannotbeprocured；andtoaccept，inreturn，themostconsumablesuperfluitieswhichindustrycaninvent。And，lastofall，hemustinspirehisownpeoplewithaspiritofemulationintheexerciseoffrugality，temperance，oeconomy，andanapplicationtolabourandingenuity。Ifthisspiritofemulationbenotkeptup，anotherwilltakeplace；foremulationisinseparablefromthenatureofman；andifthecitizenscannotbemadetoviewithoneanother，inthepracticeofmoderation，thewealththeymustacquire，willsoonmakethemviewithstrangers，inluxuryanddissipation。
Whileaspiritofmoderationprevailsinatradingnation，itmayrestassured，thatasfarasinthisparticularitexcelsthenationswithwhomitcorresponds，sofarwillitincreasetheproportionofitswealth，power，andsuperiority，overthem。
Thesearelawfulpursuitsamongmen，whenpurchasedbysuccessinsolaudableanemulation。
Ifitbetrue，thatsuperfluity，intemperance，prodigality，andidleness，qualitiesdiametricallyoppositetotheformer，corruptthehumanmind，andleadtoviolenceandinjustice；isitnotverywiselycalculatedbytheAuthorofallthings，thatasoberpeople，livingunderagoodgovernmentshould，byindustryandmoderation，necessarilyacquirewealth，whichisthebestmeansofwardingofftheviolenceofthose，withwhomtheyareboundinthegreatsocietyofmankind？Andisitnotalsomostwiselyordained，thatinproportionasapeoplecontractvicioushabits，whichmayleadtoexcessandinjustice，theveryconsequenceoftheirdissipationpovertyshoulddeprivethemofthepowerofdoingharm？Butsuchreflectionsseemrathertobetoogreatarefinementonmysubject，andexceedtheboundsofpoliticaloeconomy。
Whenwetreatofavirtuouspeopleapplyingtotradeandindustry，letusconsidertheirinterestonly，inpreservingthesesentiments；andexaminethepoliticaleviloftheirfallingofffromthem。Whenwetreatofaluxuriousnation，wherethenot-workingpartisgiventoexcessesinallkindsofconsumption，andtheworking-parttolabourandingenuity，inordertosupplythem，letusexaminetheconsequencesofsuchaspirit，withrespecttoforeigntrade:andifwefind，thataluxuriousturnintherichisprejudicialtoit，letustryifwecandiscoverthemethodsforengagingtheinhabitantstocorrecttheirmannersfromamotiveofself-interest。Thesethingspremised。
Ishallnowgiveashortsketchofthegeneralprinciplesuponwhichasystemofforeigntrademaybeestablished，andpreservedaslongaspossible；andofthemethodsbywhichitmaybeagainrecovered，when，fromthenaturaladvantagesandsuperiorabilityofadministrationinrivalnations，notfromvicesathome，apeoplemayhavelostforatimeeveryadvantagetheyusedtodrawfromtheirforeigncommerce。
Thefirstgeneralprincipleistoemploy，asusefullyaspossible，acertainnumberofthesociety，inproducingobjectsofthefirstnecessity，alwaysmorethansufficienttosupplytheinhabitants；andtocontrivemeansofenablingeveryoneofthefreehandstoprocuresubsistenceforhimself，bytheexerciseofsomespeciesofindustry。
Thesefirstobjectscompassed，Iconsiderthepeopleasabundantlyprovidedwithwhatispurelynecessary；andalsowithasurpluspreparedforanadditionalnumberoffreehands，sosoonasademandcanbeprocuredfortheirlabour。Inthemeantime，thesurpluswillbeanarticleofexportation；butnosoonerwilldemandcomefromabroad，foragreaterquantityofmanufacturesthanformerly，thansuchdemandwillhavetheeffectofgraduallymultiplyingtheinhabitantsuptotheproportionofthesurplusabovementioned，providedthestatesmanbeallalongcarefultoemploytheseadditionalnumbers，whichanusefulmultiplicationmusthaveproduced，insupplyingtheadditionaldemand:thenwiththeequivalenttheyreceivefromstrangers，theywillatthesametimeenrichthecountry，andpurchaseforthemselvesthatpartofthenationalproductions，whichhadbeenpermittedtobeexported，forwantonlyofademandforitathome。
Hemust，atthesametime，continuetogiveaproperencouragementtotheadvancementofagriculture，inorderthattheremaybeconstantlyfoundasurplusofsubsistenceforwithoutasurplustherecanneverbeenough；thismustbeallowedtobeexported，andoughttobeconsideredastheprovisionofthoseindustrioushandswhichareyetunborn。
Hemustcutoffallforeigncompetition，aboveacertainstandardprice，forthatquantityofsubsistencewhichisnecessaryforhomeconsumption；and，bypremiumsuponexportation，hemustdischargethefarmersofanysuperfluousload，whichmayremainupontheirhandswhenpricesfalltoolow。
Thisimportantmattershallbeexplainedatlargeinanotherplace，whenwecometotreatofthepolicyofgrain。
Ifnaturalcausesshouldproduceariseinthepriceofsubsistence，whichcannotbebroughtdownbyanyencouragementhecangivetoagriculture，hemustthenlaythewholecommunityundercontribution，inordertoindemnifythosewhoworkforstrangers，fortheadvanceuponthepriceoftheirfood；orhemustindemnifythestrangersinanotherway，fortheadvanceinthepriceofmanufactures。
Hemustconsiderthemanufacturesofsuperfluity，aswroughtupfortheuseofstrangers，anddiscouragealldomesticcompetitionforthem，byeverypossiblemeans。
Hemustdowhathecan，constantlytoproportionthesupplytothedemandmadeforthem；andwhenthesupplynecessarilycomestoexceedthedemand，inspiteofallhiscare，hemustthenconsiderwhatremainsoverthedemand，asasuperfluityofthestrangers；andforthesupportoftheequalbalancebetweenworkanddemand，hemustpromotethesaleofthissuperfluityevenwithinthecountryundercertainrestrictionshowever，untilthehandsemployedinsuchbrancheswherearedundancyisfound，canbemoreusefullysettoworkinanotherway。
Hemustconsidertheadvancementofthecommongoodasadirectobjectofprivateinteresttoeveryindividual，andbyadisinterestedadministrationofthepublicmoney，hemustplainlymakeitappearthatitisso。
Fromthisprincipleflowstheauthority，vestedinallgovernments，toloadthecommunitywithtaxes，inordertoadvancetheprosperityofthestate。Andthisobjectcanbenowisebetterobtainedthanbyapplyingtheamountofthemtothekeepinganevenbalancebetweenworkanddemand。Uponthisthehealthofatradingstateprincipallydepends。
Ifthefailureofforeigndemandbefoundtoproceedfromthesuperiornaturaladvantagesofothercountries，hemustdoublehisdiligencetopromoteluxuryamonghisneighbours；hemustsupportsimplicityathome；hemustincreasehisbountiesuponexportation；andhisexpenceinrelievingmanufactures，asoftasthepriceoftheirindustryfallsbelowtheexpenceoftheirsubsistence。
Whiletheseoperationsareconductedwithcoolnessandperseverance，whiletheallurementsofthewealthacquireddonotfrustratetheexecution，thestatesmanmaydependuponseeingforeignersreturntohisports，sosoonastheirowndissipation，andwantoffrugality，cometocompensatetheadvantageswhichnaturehadformerlygiventhemovertheirfrugalandindustriousneighbours。
Ifthisplanbepursued，foreigntradewillincreaseinproportiontothenumberofinhabitants；anddomesticluxurywillserveasaninstrumentonlyinthehandsofthestatesmantoincreasedemandathome，whenthesupplybecomestoogreatforforeignconsumption。Inotherwords，therichcitizenswillbeengagedtoconsumewhatissuperfluous，inordertokeepthebalanceeveninfavouroftheindustrious，andinfavourofthenation。
Thewholepurportofthisplanistopointouttheoperationofthreeveryeasyprinciples。
Thefirst，Thatinacountryentirelytakenupwiththeobjectofforeigntrade，nocompetitionshouldbeallowedtocomefromabroadforarticlesofthefirstnecessity，andprincipallyforfood，soastoraisepricesbeyondacertainstandard。
Thesecond，Thatnodomesticcompetitionshouldbeencourageduponarticlesofsuperfluity，soastoraisepricesbeyondacertainstandard。
Thethird，Thatwhenthesestandardscannotbepreserved，andthat，fromnaturalcauses，pricesgetabovethem，publicmoneymustbethrownintothescaletobringpricestothelevelofthoseofexportation。
Thegreatertheextentofforeigntradeinanynationis，thelowerthesestandardsmustbekept；thelesstheextentofitis，thehighertheymaybeallowedtorise。Consequently，Werenobodyinanationemployedinproducingthenecessariesoflife，andalltheindustriousemployedinsupplyingotherarticlesofconsumption，thepricesofnecessariesmightbeallowedtofallaslowaspossible。Therewouldbenooccasionforastandardinfavourofthosewholivebyproducingthem。
Werenomaninthestateemployedinsupplyingstrangers，thepricesofsuperfluitiesmightbeallowedtoriseashighaspossible，andastandardwouldalsobecomeuseless，asthesoledesignofitistofavourexportation。
Butasneitherofthesesuppositionscanevertakeplace，andasineverynationthereisapartemployedinproducing，andapartinconsuming；andasitisthesurplusonlyofindustrywhichcanbeexported；astandardisnecessaryforsupportingthereciprocalinterestsofbothpartiesathome；andthepublicmoneymustbemadetooperateuponthepriceofthesurplusofindustryonlysoastomakeitexportable，evenincaseswherethenationalpricesuponhomeconsumptionhavegotupbeyondtheproperstandard。Letmesetthismatterinanotherlight，thebettertocommunicateanideawhichIthinkisstillalittleobscure。
Werefoodandothernecessariesthepuregiftofnatureinanycountry，Ishouldhavelaiditdownasaprincipletodiscourageallforeigncompetitionforthem，eitherbeloworaboveanycertainstandard；becauseinthiscasethelowerthepriceofthembe，itissomuchthebetter，sincenoinconveniencecanresultfromthencetoanyindustriousperson。
Butastheproductionoftheseisinitselfamanufacture，oranobjectofindustry，acertainstandardmustbekeptupinfavourofthosewholivebyproducingthem。
Ontheotherhand，astothemanufacturesofsuperfluity，domesticcompetitionshouldbediscouraged，beyondacertainstandard，inorderthatpricesmaynotriseabovethoseofferedbyforeigners；butitmightbeencouragedbelowthestandard，inordertopromoteconsumptionandgivebreadtomanufacturers。Butweretherenoforeigndemandatall，therewouldbenooccasionforanystandard，andthenation’swealthwouldtherebycirculateonlywithgreaterorlessrapidityinproportionaspricesmightriseorfall。Thestudyofthebalancebetweenworkanddemand，wouldstillcontinueaprincipalobjectofattentioninthestatesman，notwithaviewtoenrichthestate，butinordertopreserveeverymemberofitinhealthandvigour。Ontheotherhand，theobjectofastandardregardsforeigntrade，andtheacquisitionofnewwealth，attheexpenceofothernations。Therich，therefore，ofatradingstatemustnotbeallowedtoincreasetheirconsumptionofsuperfluitiestothefullproportionoftheconstantsupply；becauseanamplesurplusmustremainforexportation；andtheonlywaytopreventforeignersfromsupplyingthemselves，istopreventpricesfromgettingupbeyondthestandard，atwhichtheseforeignerscanproducethem。
Farther，wereeveryoneofthesocietyinthesamepursuitafterindustry，therewouldbenooccasionforthepublictobelaidundercontributionforadvancingthegeneralwelfare；butasthereisconstantlyapartemployedinenrichingthestate，bythesaleoftheirworktostrangers，andapartemployedinmakingtheserichescirculateathome，bytheconsumptionofsuperfluities，Ithinkitisagoodexpedienttothrowapartofdomesticcirculationintothepubliccoffersbythenameoftaxes；thatwhentheconsequencesofprivatewealthcomenecessarilytoraiseprices，astatesmanmaybeenabledtodefraytheexpenseofbountiesuponthatpartwhichcanbeexported，andtherebyenablethenationtocontinuetosupplyforeignersatthesamepriceasformerly。
Thefarthertheseprinciplescanbecarriedintoexecution，thelongerastatewillflourish；andthelongershewillsupporthersuperiority。Whenforeigndemandbeginstofail，soasnottoberecalled，eitherindustrymustdecline，ordomesticluxurymustbegin。Theconsequencesofbothmaybeeasilyguessedat，andtheprincipleswhichinfluencethemshallbeparticularlyexaminedinthefollowingchapter。