ofIndiancorn，61/4d。;3d。worthofredherring，Id。salt，Id。vinegar，2d。pepperandsweetherbs，inall203/4。;makeasoupfor64men，andatthemediumpriceofbarleyandofIndiancorn……thissoupmaybeprovidedat1/4d。，theportionof20ounces。[41]Withtheadvanceofcapitalisticproduction，theadulterationoffoodrenderedThompson’sidealsuperfluous。[42]Attheendofthe18thandduringthefirsttenyearsofthe19thcentury，theEnglishfarmersandlandlordsenforcedtheabsoluteminimumofwage，bypayingtheagriculturallabourerslessthantheminimumintheformofwages，andtheremainderintheshapeofparochialrelief。AnexampleofthewaggishwayinwhichtheEnglishDogberriesactedintheir\"legal\"fixingofawagestariff:\"ThesquiresofNorfolkhaddined，saysMr。Burke，whentheyfixedtherateofwages;thesquiresofBerksevidentlythoughtthelabourersoughtnottodoso，whentheyfixedtherateofwagesatSpeenhamland，1795……Theretheydecidethat’income（weekly）shouldbe3s。foraman，’whenthegallonorhalf—peckloafof8lbs。11oz。isat1s。，andincreaseregularlytillbreadis1s。5d。;whenitisabovethatsumdecreaseregularlytillitbeat2s。，andthenhisfoodshouldbe1/5thless。\"[43]BeforetheCommitteeofInquiryoftheHouseofLords，1814，acertainA。Bennett，alargefarmer，magistrate，poor—lawguardian，andwage—regulator，wasasked:\"Hasanyproportionofthevalueofdailylabourbeenmadeuptothelabourersoutofthepoors’rate？\"Answer:\"Yes，ithas;theweeklyincomeofeveryfamilyismadeuptothegallonloaf（8lbs。11oz。），and3d。perhead！……Thegallonloafperweekiswhatwesupposesufficientforthemaintenanceofeverypersoninthefamilyfortheweek;andthe3d。isforclothes，andiftheparishthinkpropertofindclothes;the3d。isdeducted。ThispracticegoesthroughallthewesternpartofWiltshire，and，Ibelieve，throughoutthecountry。\"[44]\"Foryears，\"exclaimsabourgeoisauthorofthattime，\"they（thefarmers）
havedegradedarespectableclassoftheircountrymen，byforcingthemtohaverecoursetotheworkhouse……thefarmer，whileincreasinghisowngains，haspreventedanyaccumulationonthepartofhislabouringdependents。\"[45]Thepartplayedinourdaysbythedirectrobberyfromthelabourer’snecessaryconsumption—fundintheformationofsurplus—value，and，therefore，oftheaccumulation—fundofcapital，theso—calleddomesticindustryhasservedtoshow。（Ch。xv。，sect。8，c。）Furtherfactsonthissubjectwillbegivenlater。
Althoughinallbranchesofindustrythatpartoftheconstantcapitalconsistingofinstrumentsoflabourmustbesufficientforacertainnumberoflabourers（determinedbythemagnitudeoftheundertaking），itbynomeansalwaysnecessarilyincreasesinthesameproportionasthequantityoflabouremployed。Inafactory，supposethat100labourersworking8hoursadayyield800working—hours。Ifthecapitalistwishestoraisethissumbyonehalf，hecanemploy50moreworkers;butthenhemustalsoadvancemorecapital，notmerelyforwages，butforinstrumentsoflabour。Buthemightalsoletthe100labourerswork12hoursinsteadof8，andthentheinstrumentsoflabouralreadytohandwouldbeenough。Thesewouldthensimplybemorerapidlyconsumed。Thusadditionallabour，begottenofthegreatertensionoflabour—power，canaugmentsurplus—productandsurplus—value（i。e。，thesubject—matterofaccumulation），withoutcorrespondingaugmentationintheconstantpartofcapital。
Intheextractiveindustries，mines，&c。，therawmaterialsformnopartofthecapitaladvanced。Thesubjectoflabourisinthiscasenotaproductofpreviouslabour，butisfurnishedbyNaturegratis，asinthecaseofmetals，minerals，coal，stone，&c。Inthesecasestheconstantcapitalconsistsalmostexclusivelyofinstrumentsoflabour，whichcanverywellabsorbanincreasedquantityoflabour（dayandnightshiftsoflabourers，e。g。）。Allotherthingsbeingequal，themassandvalueoftheproductwillriseindirectproportiontothelabourexpended。
Asonthefirstdayofproduction，。theoriginalproduce—formers，nowturnedintothecreatorsofthematerialelementsofcapital？manandNature？stillworktogether。Thankstotheelasticityoflabour—power，thedomainofaccumulationhasextendedwithoutanypreviousenlargementofconstantcapital。
Inagriculturethelandundercultivationcannotbeincreasedwithouttheadvanceofmoreseedandmanure。Butthisadvanceoncemade，thepurelymechanicalworkingofthesoilitselfproducesamarvellouseffectontheamountoftheproduct。Agreaterquantityoflabour，donebythesamenumberoflabourersasbefore，thusincreasesthefertility，withoutrequiringanynewadvanceintheinstrumentsoflabour。ItisonceagainthedirectactionofmanonNaturewhichbecomesanimmediatesourceofgreateraccumulation，withouttheinterventionofanynewcapital。
Finally，inwhatiscalledmanufacturingindustry，everyadditionalexpenditureoflabourpre—supposesacorrespondingadditionalexpenditureofrawmaterials，butnotnecessarilyofinstrumentsoflabour。Andasextractiveindustryandagriculturesupplymanufacturingindustrywithitsrawmaterialsandthoseofitsinstrumentsoflabour，theadditionalproducttheformerhavecreatedwithoutadditionaladvanceofcapital，tellsalsoinfavourofthelatter。
Generalresult:byincorporatingwithitselfthetwoprimarycreatorsofwealth，labour—powerandtheland，capitalacquiresapowerofexpansionthatpermitsittoaugmenttheelementsofitsaccumulationbeyondthelimitsapparentlyfixedbyitsownmagnitude，orbythevalueandthemassofthemeansofproduction，alreadyproduced，inwhichithasitsbeing。
Anotherimportantfactorintheaccumulationofcapitalisthedegreeofproductivityofsociallabour。
Withtheproductivepoweroflabourincreasesthemassoftheproducts，inwhichacertainvalue，and，therefore，asurplus—valueofagivenmagnitude，isembodied。Therateofsurplus—valueremainingthesameorevenfalling，solongasitonlyfallsmoreslowly，thantheproductivepoweroflabourrises，themassofthesurplus—productincreases。Thedivisionofthisproductintorevenueandadditionalcapitalremainingthesame，theconsumptionofthecapitalistmay，therefore，increasewithoutanydecreaseinthefundofaccumulation。Therelativemagnitudeoftheaccumulation—fundmayevenincreaseattheexpenseoftheconsumption—fund，whilstthecheapeningofcommoditiesplacesatthedisposalofthecapitalistasmanymeansofenjoymentasformerly，orevenmorethanformerly。Buthand—in—handwiththeincreasingproductivityoflabour，goes，aswehaveseen，thecheapeningofthelabourer，thereforeahigherrateofsurplus—value，evenwhentherealwagesarerising。Thelatterneverriseproportionallytotheproductivepoweroflabour。Thesamevalueinvariablecapitalthereforesetsinmovementmorelabour—power，and，therefore，morelabour。Thesamevalueinconstantcapitalisembodiedinmoremeansofproduction，i。e。，inmoreinstrumentsoflabour，materialsoflabourandauxiliarymaterials;itthereforealsosuppliesmoreelementsfortheproductionbothofuse—valueandofvalue，andwiththesemoreabsorbersoflabour。Thevalueoftheadditionalcapital，therefore，remainingthesameorevendiminishing，acceleratedaccumulationstilltakesplace。Notonlydoesthescaleofreproductionmateriallyextend，buttheproductionofsurplus—valueincreasesmorerapidlythanthevalueoftheadditionalcapital。
Thedevelopmentoftheproductivepoweroflabourreactsalsoontheoriginalcapitalalreadyengagedintheprocessofproduction。Apartofthefunctioningconstantcapitalconsistsofinstrumentsoflabour，suchasmachinery，&c。，whicharenotconsumed，andthereforenotreproduced，orreplacedbynewonesofthesamekind，untilafterlongperiodsoftime。
Buteveryyearapartoftheseinstrumentsoflabour—perishesorreachest’helimitofitsproductivefunction。Itreaches，therefore，inthatyear，thetimeforitsperiodicalreproduction，foritsreplacementbynewonesofthesamekind。Iftheproductivenessoflabourhas，duringtheusingupoftheseinstrumentsoflabour，increased（anditdevelopscontinuallywiththeuninterruptedadvanceofscienceandtechnology），moreefficientand（consideringtheirincreasedefficiency），cheapermachines，tools，apparatus，&c。，replacetheold。Theoldcapitalisreproducedinamoreproductiveform，apartfromtheconstantdetailimprovementsintheinstrumentsoflabouralreadyinuse。Theotherpartoftheconstantcapital，rawmaterialandauxiliarysubstances，isconstantlyreproducedinlessthanayear;thoseproducedbyagriculture，forthemostpartannually。
Everyintroductionofimprovedmethods，therefore，worksalmostsimultaneouslyonthenewcapitalandonthatalreadyinaction。EveryadvanceinChemistrynotonlymultipliesthenumberofusefulmaterialsandtheusefulapplicationsofthosealreadyknown，thusextendingwiththegrowthofcapitalitssphereofinvestment。Itteachesatthesametimehowtothrowthe—excrementsoftheprocessesofproductionandconsumptionbackagainintothecircleoftheprocessofreproduction，andthus，withoutanypreviousoutlayofcapital，createsnewmatterforcapital。Liketheincreasedexploitationofnaturalwealthbythemereincreaseinthetensionoflabour—power，scienceandtechnologygivecapitalapowerofexpansionindependentofthegivenmagnitudeofthecapitalactuallyfunctioning。Theyreactatthesametimeonthatpartoftheoriginalcapitalwhichhasentereduponitsstageofrenewal。This，inpassingintoitsnewshape，incorporatesgratisthesocialadvancemadewhileitsoldshapewasbeingusedup。Ofcourse，thisdevelopmentofproductivepowerisaccompaniedbyapartialdepreciationoffunctioningcapital。Sofarasthisdepreciationmakesitselfacutelyfeltincompetition，theburdenfallsonthelabourer，intheincreasedexploitationofwhomthecapitalistlooksforhisindemnification。
Labourtransmitstoitsproductthevalueofthemeansofproductionconsumedbyit。Ontheotherhand，thevalueandmassofthemeansofproductionsetinmotionbyagivenquantityoflabourincreaseasthelabourbecomesmoreproductive。Thoughthesamequantityoflabouraddsalwaystoitsproductsonlythesamesumofnewvalue，stilltheoldcapital—value，transmittedbythelabourtotheproducts，increaseswiththegrowingproductivityoflabour。
AnEnglishandaChinesespinner，e。g。，mayworkthesamenumberofhourswiththesameintensity;thentheywillbothinaweekcreateequalvalues。Butinspiteofthisequality，animmensedifferencewillobtainbetweenthevalueoftheweek’sproductoftheEnglishman，whoworkswithamightyautomaton，andthatoftheChinaman，whohasbutaspinning—wheel。
InthesametimeastheChinamanspinsonepoundofcotton，theEnglishmanspinsseveralhundredsofpounds。Asum，manyhundredtimesasgreat，ofoldvaluesswellsthevalueofhisproduct，inwhichthosere—appearinanew，usefulform，andcanthusfunctionanewascapital。
\"In1782，\"asFrederickEngelsteachesus，\"allthewoolcropinEnglandofthethreeprecedingyears，layuntouchedforwantoflabourers，andsoitmusthavelain，ifnewlyinventedmachineryhadnotcometoitsaidandspunit。\"[46]labourembodiedintheformofmachineryofcoursedidnotdirectlyforceintolifeasingleman，butitmadeitpossibleforasmallernumberoflabourers，withtheadditionofrelativelylesslivinglabour，notonlytoconsumethewoolproductively，andputintoitnewvalue，buttopreserveintheformofyarn，&c。，itsoldvalue。Atthesametime，itcausedandstimulatedincreasedreproductionofwool。Itisthenaturalpropertyoflivinglabour，totransmitoldvalue，whilstitcreatesnew。
Hence，withtheincreaseinefficacy，extentandvalueofitsmeansofproduction，consequentlywiththeaccumulationthataccompaniesthedevelopmentofitsproductivepower，labourkeepsupandeternisesanalwaysincreasingcapital—valueinaformevernew。\"[47]Thisnaturalpoweroflabourtakestheappearanceofanintrinsicpropertyofcapital，inwhichitisincorporated，justastheproductiveforcesofsociallabourtaketheappearanceofinherentpropertiesofcapital，andastheconstantappropriationofsurplus—labourbythecapitalists，takesthatofaconstantself—expansionofcapital。
Withtheincreaseofcapital，thedifferencebetweenthecapitalemployedandthecapitalconsumedincreases。inotherwords，thereisincreaseinthevalueandthematerialmassoftheinstrumentsoflabour，suchasbuildings，machinery，drain—pipes，working—cattle，apparatusofeverykindthatfunctionforalongerorshortertimeinprocessesofproductionconstantlyrepeated，orthatservefortheattainmentofparticularusefuleffects，whilsttheythemselvesonlygraduallywearout，thereforeonlylosetheirvaluepiecemeal，thereforetransferthatvaluetotheproductonlybitbybit。Inthesameproportionastheseinstrumentsoflabourserveasproduct—formerswithoutaddingvaluetotheproduct，i。e。，inthesameproportionastheyarewhollyemployedbutonlypartlyconsumed，theyperform，aswesawearlier，thesamegratuitousserviceasthenaturalforces，water，steam，air，electricity，etc。Thisgratuitousserviceofpastlabour，whenseizedandfilledwithasoulbylivinglabour，increaseswiththeadvancingstagesofaccumulation。
Sincepastlabouralwaysdisguisesitselfascapital，i。e，sincethepassiveofthelabourofA，B，C，etc。，takestheformoftheactiveofthenon—labourerX，bourgeoisandpoliticaleconomistsarefullofpraisesoftheservicesofdeadandgonelabour，which，accordingtotheScotchgeniusMacCulloch，oughttoreceiveaspecialremunerationintheshapeofinterest，profit，etc。[48]Thepowerfulandever—increasingassistancegivenbypastlabourtothelivinglabour—processundertheformofmeansofproductionis，therefore，attributedtothatformofpastlabourinwhichitisalienated，asunpaidlabour，fromtheworkerhimself，i。e，toitscapitalisticform。Thepracticalagentsofcapitalisticproductionandtheirpettifoggingideologistsareasunabletothinkofthemeansofproductionasseparatefromtheantagonisticsocialmasktheywearto—day，asaslave—ownertothinkoftheworkerhimselfasdistinctfromhischaracterasaslave。
Withagivendegreeofexploitationoflabour—power，themassofthesurplus—valueproducedisdeterminedbythenumberofworkerssimultaneouslyexploited;andthiscorresponds，althoughinvaryingproportions，withthemagnitudeofthecapital。Themore，therefore，capitalincreasesbymeansofsuccessiveaccumulations，themoredoesthesumofthevalueincreasethatisdividedintoconsumption—fundandaccumulation—fund。Thecapitalistcan，therefore，liveamorejollylife，andatthesametimeshowmore\"abstinence。\"And，finally，allthespringsofproductionactwithgreaterelasticity，themoreitsscaleextendswiththemassofthecapitaladvanced。
SECTION5。THESO—CALLEDLABOUR—FUND
Ithasbeenshowninthecourseofthisinquirythatcapitalisnotafixedmagnitude，butisapartofsocialwealth，elasticandconstantlyfluctuatingwiththedivisionoffreshsurplus—valueintorevenueandadditionalcapital。Ithasbeenseenfurtherthat，evenwithagivenmagnitudeoffunctioningcapital，thelabour—power，thescience，andtheland（bywhicharetobeunderstood，economically，allconditionsoflabourfurnishedbyNatureindependentlyofman），embodiedinit，formelasticpowersofcapital，allowingit，withincertainlimits，afieldofactionindependentofitsownmagnitude。Inthisinquirywehaveneglectedalleffectsoftheprocessofcirculation，effectswhichmayproduceverydifferentdegreesofefficiencyinthesamemassofcapital。Andaswepre—supposedthelimitssetbycapitalistproduction，thatistosay，pre—supposedtheprocessofsocialproductioninaformdevelopedbypurelyspontaneousgrowth，weneglectedanymorerationalcombination，directlyandsystematicallypracticablewiththemeansofproduction，andthemassoflabour—poweratpresentdisposable。Classicaleconomyalwayslovedtoconceivesocialcapitalasafixedmagnitudeofafixeddegreeofefficiency。Butthisprejudicewasfirstestablishedasadogmabythearch—Philistine，JeremyBentham，thatinsipid，pedantic，leather—tonguedoracleoftheordinarybourgeoisintelligenceofthe19thcentury。[49]BenthamisamongphilosopherswhatMartinTupperisamongpoets。BothcouldonlyhavebeenmanufacturedinEngland。[50]Inthelightofhisdogmathecommonestphenomenaoftheprocessofproduction，as，e。g。，itssuddenexpansionsandcontractions，nay，evenaccumulationitself，becomeperfectlyinconceivable。[51]ThedogmawasusedbyBenthamhimself，aswellasbyMalthus，JamesMill，MacCulloch，etc。，foranapologeticpurpose，andespeciallyinordertorepresentonepartofcapital，namely，variablecapital，orthatpartconvertibleintolabour—power，asafixedmagnitude。Thematerialofvariablecapital，i。e，themassofthemeansofsubsistenceitrepresentsforthelabourer，ortheso—calledlabour—fund，wasfabledasaseparatepartofsocialwealth，fixedbynaturallawsandunchangeable。Tosetinmotionthepartofsocialwealthwhichistofunctionasconstantcapital，or，toexpressitinamaterialform，asmeansofproduction，adefinitemassoflivinglabourisrequired。Thismassisgiventechnologically。
Butneitheristhenumberoflabourersrequiredtorenderfluidthismassoflabour—powergiven（itchangeswiththedegreeofexploitationoftheindividuallabour—power），noristhepriceofthislabour—powergiven，butonlyitsminimumlimit，whichismoreoververyvariable。Thefactsthatlieatthebottomofthisdogmaarethese:ontheonehand，thelabourerhasnorighttointerfereinthedivisionofsocialwealthintomeansofenjoymentforthenon—labourerandmeansofproduction。[52]Ontheotherhand，onlyinfavourableandexceptionalcases，hashethepowertoenlargetheso—calledlabour—fundattheexpenseofthe\"revenue\"
ofthewealthy。
Whatsillytautologyresultsfromtheattempttorepresentthecapitalisticlimitsofthelabour—fundasitsnaturalandsociallimitsmaybeseen，e。g。，inProfessorFawcett。[53]\"Thecirculatingcapitalofacountry，\"hesays，\"isitswage—fund。Hence，ifwedesiretocalculatetheaveragemoneywagesreceivedbyeachlabourer，wehavesimplytodividetheamountofthiscapitalbythenumberofthelabouringpopulation。\"[54]Thatistosay，wefirstaddtogethertheindividualwagesactuallypaid，andthenweaffirmthatthesumthusobtained，formsthetotalvalueofthe\"labour—fund\"determinedandvouchsafedtousbyGodandNature。Lastly，wedividethesumthusobtainedbythenumberoflabourerstofindoutagainhowmuchmaycometoeachontheaverage。Anuncommonlyknowingdodgethis。ItdidnotpreventMr。Fawcettsayinginthesamebreath:\"TheaggregatewealthwhichisannuallysavedinEngland，isdividedintotwoportions;
oneportionisemployedascapitaltomaintainourindustry，andtheotherportionisexportedtoforeigncountries……Onlyaportion，andperhaps，notalargeportionofthewealthwhichisannuallysavedinthiscountry，isinvestedinourownindustry。[55]
Thegreaterpartoftheyearlyaccruingsurplus—product，embezzled，becauseabstractedwithoutreturnofanequivalent，fromtheEnglishlabourer，isthususedascapital，notinEngland，butinforeigncountries。Butwiththeadditionalcapitalthusexported，apartofthelabour—fund\"inventedbyGodandBenthamisalsoexported。[56]
Footnotes[1]\"Accumulationofcapital;theemploymentofaportionofrevenueascapital。\"
（Malthus:\"Definitions，&c。，\"ed。Cazenove，p。11。）\"Conversionofrevenueintocapital，\"（Malthus:\"Princ。ofPol。Econ\"2ndEd。，Lond……
1836，p。320。）
[2]Weheretakenoaccountofexporttrade，bymeansofwhichanationcanchangearticlesofluxuryeitherintomeansofproductionormeansofsubsistence，andviceversà。Inordertoexaminetheobjectofourinvestigationinitsintegrity，freefromalldisturbingsubsidiarycircumstances，wemusttreatthewholeworldasonenation，andassumethatcapitalistproductioniseverywhereestablishedandhaspossesseditselfofeverybranchofindustry。
[3]Sismondi’sanalysisofaccumulationsuffersfromthegreatdefect，thathecontentshimself，totoogreatanextent，withthephrase\"conversionofrevenueintocapital，\"withoutfathomingthematerialconditionsofthisoperation。
[4]\"Letravailprimitifauquelsoncapitaladiisanaissance。\"Sismondi，l。
c。，ed。Paris，t。I。，p。109。
[5]\"Labourcreatescapitalbeforecapitalemployslabour。\"E。G。Wakefield，\"EnglandandAmerica，\"Lond。，1833，Vol。II，p。110。
[6]Thepropertyofthecapitalistintheproductofthetabourofothers\"isastrictconsequenceofthelawofappropriation，thefundamentalprincipleofwhichwas，onthecontrary，theexclusivetitleofeverylabourertotheproductofhisownlabour。\"（Cherbuliez，\"RichesseouPauvreti，\"Paris，1841，p。58，where，however，thedialecticalreversalisnotproperlydeveloped。）
[7]NOTE:Thefollowingpassage（top。551\"lawsofcapitalistappropriation。\"）
hasbeenaddedtotheEnglishtextinconformitywiththe4thGermanedition。
[8]Wemaywell，therefore，feelastonishedattheclevernessOfProudhon，whowouldabolishcapitalisticpropertybyenforcingtheeternallawsofpropertythatarebasedoncommodityproduction！
[9]\"Capital，viz。，accumulatedwealthemployedwithaviewtoprofit。\"（Malthus，l。c。）\"Capital……consistsofwealthsavedfromrevenue，andusedwithaviewtoprofit。\"（R。Jones:\"AnIntroductoryLectureonPolit。Econ。，\"
Lond。，1833，p。16。）
[10]\"Thepossessorsofsurplus—produceorcapital。\"（\"TheSourceandRemedyoftheNationalDifficulties。ALettertoLordJohnRussell。\"Lond。，1821。）
[11]\"Capital，withcompoundinterestoneveryportionofcapitalsaved，issoallengrossingthatallthewealthintheworldfromwhichincomeisderived，haslongagobecometheinterestoncapital。\"（London，Economist，19thJuly，1851。）
[12]\"Nopoliticaleconomistofthepresentdaycanbysavingmean。merehoarding:
andbeyondthiscontractedandinsufficientproceeding，nouseoftheterminreferencetothenationalwealthcanwellbeimagined，。butthatwhichmustarisefromadifferentapplicationofwhatissaved，foundeduponarealdistinctionbetweenthedifferentkindsoflabourmaintainedbyit。\"（Malthus，l。c。，pp。38，39。）
[13]Thusforinstance，Balzac，whosothoroughlystudiedeveryshadeofavarice，representstheoldusurerGobseckasinhissecondchildhoodwhenhebeginstoheapupahoardofcommodities。
[14]\"Accumulationofstocks……upon—exchange……over—production。\"（Th。Corbet。
l。c。，p。104。）
[15]InthissenseNeckerspeaksofthe\"objetsdefasteetdesomptuosit6，\"
ofwhich\"letempsagrossiI’accuinulation，\"andwhich\"lesloisdepropriàtà
ontrassemblàsdansuneseuleclassedelasociàtà。\"
（OeuvresdeM。Necker，ParisandLausanne，1789，t。ii。，p。291。）
[16]Ricardo，1。C—，P—163，note。
[17]Inspiteofhis\"Logic，\"JohnSt。Millneverdetectsevensuchfaultyanalysisasthiswhenmadebyhispredecessors，ananalysiswhich，evenfromthebourgeoisstandpointofthescience，criesoutforrectification。Ineverycaseheregisterswiththedogmatismofadisciple，theconfusionofhismaster’sthoughts。Sohere:\"Thecapitalitselfinthelongrunbecomesentirelywages，andwhenreplacedbythesaleofproducebecomeswagesagain。\"
[18]Inhisdescriptionoftheprocessofreproduction，andofaccumulation，AdamSmith，inmanyways，notonlymadenoadvance，butevenlostconsiderableground，comparedwithhispredecessors，especiallybythePhysiocrats。
Connectedwiththeillusionmentionedinthetext，isthereallywonderfuldogma，leftbyhimasaninheritancetoPoliticalEconomy，thedogma，thatthepriceofcommoditiesismadeupofwages，profit（interest）andrent，i。e。，ofwagesandsurplus—value。Startingfromthisbasis，Storchnaivelyconfesses，\"IIestimpossiblederàsoudreleprixn6cessairedanssesàlàmentslesplussimples。\"（Storch，l。c。，Petersb。
Edit。，1815，t。ii。，p。141，note。）Afinescienceofeconomythis，whichdeclaresitimpossibletoresolvethepriceofacommodityintoitssimplestelements！ThispointwillbefurtherinvestigatedintheseventhpartofBookiii。
[19]Thereaderwillnotice，thatthewordrevenueisusedinadoublesense:
first，todesignatesurplus—valuesofarasitisthefruitperiodicallyyieldedbycapital;secondly，todesignatethepartofthatfruitwhichisperiodicallyconsumedbythecapitalist，oraddedtothefundthatsupplieshisprivateconsumption。IhaveretainedthisdoublemeaningbecauseitharmoniseswiththelanguageoftheEnglishandFrencheconomists。
[20]Takingtheusurer，thatold—fashionedbuteverrenewedspecimenofthecapitalistforhistext，Luthershowsveryaptlythattheloveofpowerisanelementinthedesiretogetrich。\"Theheathenwereable，bythelightofreason，toconcludethatausurerisadouble—dyedthiefandmurderer。
WeChristians，however，holdtheminsuchhonour，thatwefairlyworshipthemforthesakeoftheirmoney……Whoevereatsup，robs，andstealsthenourishmentofanother，thatmancommitsasgreatamurder（sofarasinhimlies）ashewhostarvesamanorutterlyundoeshim。Suchdoesausurer，andsitsthewhilesafeonhisstool，whenheoughtrathertobehangingonthegallows，andbeeatenbyasmanyravensashehasstolenguilders，ifonlythereweresomuchfleshonhim，thatsomanyravenscouldsticktheirbeaksinandshareit。Meanwhile，wehangthesmallthieves……
Littlethievesareputinthestocks，greatthievesgoflauntingingoldandsilk……Thereforeisthere，onthisearth，nogreaterenemyofman（afterthedevil）thanagripe—money，andusurer，forhewantstobeGodoverallmen。Turks，soldiers，andtyrantsarealsobadmen，yetmusttheyletthepeoplelive，andConfessthattheyarebad，andenemies，anddo，nay，must，nowandthenshowpitytosome。Butausurerandmoney—glutton，suchaonewouldiiavethewholeworldperishofhungerandthirst，miseryandwant，sofarasinhimlies，sothathemayhavealltohimself，andeveryonemayreceivefromhimasfromaGod，andbehisserfforever。
Towearfinecloaks，goldenchains，Tings，towipehismouth，tobedeemedandtakenforaworthy，piousman……Usuryisagreathugemonster，likeawerewolf，wbolayswasteall，morethananyCacus，GerionorAntus。Andyetdeckshimselfout，andwouldbethoughtpious，sothatpeoplemaynotseewheretheoxenhavegone，thathedragsbackwardsintohisden。ButHerculesshallhearthecryoftheoxenandofhisprisoners，andshallseekCacusevenincliffsandamongrocks，andshallsettheoxenlooseagainfromthevillain。ForCacusmeansthevillainthatisapioususurer，andsteals，robs，eatseverything。Andwillnotownthathehasdoneit，andthinksnoonewillfindhimout，becausetheoxen，drawnbackwardsintohisden，makeitseem，fromtheirfoot—prints，thattheyhavebeenletout。Sotheusurerwoulddeceivetheworld，asthoughhewereofuseandgavetheworldoxen，—whichhe，however，rends，andeatsallalone……
Andsincewebreakonthewheel，andbeheadhighwaymen，murderersandhousebreakers，howmuchmoreoughtwetobreakonthewheelandkill……huntdown，curseandbeheadallusurers。\"（MartinLuther，l。c。）
[21]SeeGoethe’s\"Faust。\"
[22]Dr。Aikin:\"DescriptionoftheCountryfrom30to40milesroundManchester。\"
Lond。，1795，p。182，sq。
[23]A。Smith，l。c。，bk。iii。，ch。iii。
[24]EvenJ。B。Saysays:\"Lesàpargnesdesrichessefontauxdàpensdespauvres。\"\"TheRomanproletarianlivedalmostentirelyattheexpenseofsociety……Itcanalmostbesaidthatmodernsocietylivesattheexpenseoftheproletarians，onwhatitkeepsoutoftheremunerationoflabour。\"
（Sismondi:\"ttudes，&c。，\"t。i。，p。24。）
[25]Malthus，l。c。，pp。319，320。
[26]\"AnInquiryintothosePrinciplesRespectingtheNatureofDemand，&c。，\"
p。67。
[27]l。c。，p。59。
[28]（Senior，\"Principesfondamentauxdel’Écon。Pol。\"trad。Arrivabene。
Paris，1836，p。308。）Thiswasrathertoomuchfortheadherentsoftheoldclassicalschool。\"Mr。Seniorhassubstitutedforit\"（theexpression，labourand，profit）\"theexpressionlabourandAbstinence。Hewhoconvertshisrevenueabstainsfromtheenjoymentwhichitsexpenditurewouldaffordhim。Itisnotthecapital，buttheuseofthecapitalproductively，whichisthecauseofprofits。\"（JohnCazenove，l。c。，p。130，Note。）JohnSt。
Mill，onthecontrary，acceptsontheonehandRicardo’stheoryofprofit，andannexesontheotherhandSenior’s\"remunerationofabstinence。\"Heisasmuchathomeinabsurdcontradictions，ashefeelsatseaintheHegeliancontradiction，thesourceofalldialectic。Ithasneveroccurredtothevulgareconomisttomakethesimplereftexion，thateveryhumanactionmaybeviewed，as\"abstinence\"fromitsopposite。Eatingisabstinencefromfasting，walking，abstinencefromstandingstill，working，abstinencefromidling，idling，abstinencefromworking，&C。Thesegentlemenwoulddowell，toponder，onceinaway，overSpinoza’s:\"DeterminatioestNegatio。\"
[29]Senior，l。c。，p。342。
[30]\"Noone……willsowhiswheat，forinstance，andallowittoremainatwelvlemonthintheground，orleavehiswineinacellarforyears，insteadofconsumingthesethingsortheirequivalentatonce……unlessheexpectstoacquireadditionalvalue，&c。\"（Scrope，\"Polit。Econ。，\"edit。byA。Potter，NewYork，1841，pp。133—134。）
[31]\"Laprivationques’imposelecapitalists，enpr6tant（thiseuphemismused，forthepurposeofidentifying，accordingtotheapprovedmethodofvulgareconomy，thelabourerwhoisexploited，withtheindustrialcapitalistwhoexploits，andtowhomothercapitalistslendmoney）sesinstrumentsdeproductionautravailleur，aulieud’enconsacrerlavaleurisonpropreusage，enlatransformentenobjetsd’utilitéoud’agriment。\"（G。
deMolinari，l。c。，p。36。）
[32]\"Laconservationd’uncapitalexige……uneffortconstantpourràsisteralatentationdeleconsommer。\"（Courcelle—Seneuil，l。c。，p。57。）
[33]\"Theparticularclassesofincomewhichyieldthemostabundantlytotheprogressofnationalcapital，changeatdifferentstagesoftheirprogress，andare，therefore，entirelydifferentinnationsoccupyingdifferentpositionsinthatprogress……Profits……unimportantsourceofaccumulation，comparedwithwagesandrents，intheearlierstagesofsociety……Whenaconsiderableadvanceinthepowersofnationalindustryhasactuallytakenplace，profitsriseintocomparativeimportanceasasourceofaccumulation。\"（RichardJones，\"Textbook，&c。，\"pp。16，21。）
[34]l。c。，p。36，sq。
[35]\"Ricardosays:’Indifferentstagesofsocietytheaccumulationofcapitalorofthemeansofemploying’（i。e。，exploiting）’labourismoreorlessrapid，andmustinallcasesdependontheproductivepowersoflabour。