[94]l。c。，p。242。
[95]l。c。\"TheFrench，\"hesays，\"laughatourenthusiasticideasofliberty。\"
l。c。，p。78。
[96]\"Theyespeciallyobjectedtoworkbeyondthe12hoursperday，becausethelawwhichfixedthosehours，istheonlygoodwhichremainstothemofthelegislationoftheRepublic。\"（\"Rep。ofInsp。ofFact。\"，31stOctober，1856，p。80。）TheFrenchTwelveHours’BillofSeptember5th，1850，abourgeoiseditionofthedecreeoftheProvisionalGovernmentofMarch2nd，1848，holdsinallworkshopswithoutexceptions。Beforethislawtheworking—dayinFrancewaswithoutdefinitelimit。Itlastedinthefactories14，15，ormorehours。See&’DesclassesouvrieresenFrance，pendantl’annee1848。ParM。Blanqui。\"M。Blanquitheeconomist，nottheRevolutionist，hadbeenentrustedbytheGovernmentwithaninquiryintotheconditionoftheworking—class。
[97]Belgiumisthemodelbourgeoisstateinregardtotheregulationoftheworking—day。LordHowardofWelden，EnglishPlenipotentiaryatBrussels，reportstotheForeignOfficeMay12th，1862:\"M。Rogier，theminister，informedmethatchildren’slabourislimitedneitherbyagenerallawnorbyanylocalregulations;thattheGovernment，duringthelastthreeyears，intendedineverysessiontoproposeabillonthesubject，butalwaysfoundaninsuperableobstacleinthejealousoppositiontoanylegislationincontradictionwiththeprincipleofperfectfreedomoflabour。\"
[98]Itiscertainlymuchtoberegrettedthatanyclassofpersonsshouldtoil12hoursaday，which，includingthetimefortheirmealsandforgoingtoandreturningfromtheirwork，amounts，infact，to14ofthe24hours……
Withoutenteringintothequestionofhealth，noonewillhesitate，Ithink，toadmitthat，inamoralpointofview，soentireanabsorptionofthetimeoftheworking—classes，withoutintermission，fromtheearlyageof13，andintradesnotsubjecttorestriction，muchyounger，mustbeextremelyprejudicial，andisanevilgreatlytobedeplored……Forthesake，therefore，ofpublicmorals。ofbringingupanorderlypopulation，andofgivingthegreatbodyofthepeopleareasonableenjoymentoflife，itismuchtobedesiredthatinalltradessomeportionofeveryworking—dayshouldbereservedforrestandleisure。\"（LeonardHomerin``ReportsofInsp。ofFact。for31stDec。，1841。\"）
[99]See\"JudgmentofMr。J。H。Otway，Belfast。HilarySessions，CountyAntrim，1860。\"
[100]ItisverycharacteristicoftheregimeofLouisPhilippe，thebourgeoisking，thattheoneFactoryActpassedduringhisreign，thatofMarch22nd，1841，wasneverputinforce。Andthislawonlydealtwithchild—labour。
Itfixed8hoursadayforchildrenbetween8and12，12hoursforchildrenbetween12and16，&c。，withmanyexceptionswhichallownight—workevenforchildren8yearsold。Thesupervisionandenforcementofthislaware，inacountrywhereeverymouseisunderpoliceadministration，lefttothegood—willoftheamisducommerce。Onlysince1853，inonesingledepartment？theDepartementduNord？hasapaidgovernmentinspectorbeenappointed。NotlesscharacteristicofthedevelopmentofFrenchsociety，generally，isthefact，thatLouisPhilippe~slawstoodsolitaryamongtheall—embracingmassofFrenchlaws，tilltheRevolutionof1848。
[101]ReportofInsn。ofFact。\"30thApril，1860，p。50。
[102]\"Rept。ofInsp。ofFact。，\"31stOctober，1849，p。6。
[103]\"Rept。ofInsp。ofFact。，\"31stOctober，1848，p。98。
[104]LeonardHomerusestheexpression\"nefariouspractices\"inhisofficialreports。（\"ReportofInsp。ofFact。，\"31stOctober，1859，p。7。）
[105]\"Rept。，\"&c。，30thSept。，1844，p。15。
[106]TheActallowschildrentobeemployedfor10hoursiftheydonotworkdayafterday，butonlyonalternatedays。Inthemain，thisclauseremainedinoperative。
[107]\"Asareductionintheirhoursofworkwouldcausealargernumber（ofchildren）tobeemployed，itwasthoughtthattheadditionalsupplyofchildrenfrom8to9yearsoiagewouldmeettheincreaseddemand\"（l。
c。，p。13）。
[108]\"Rep。ofInsp。ofFact。，\"31stOct。，1848，p。16。
[109]\"IfoundthatmenwhohadbeengettinglOs。aweek，hadhadIs。takenoffforareductionintherateof10percent，andIs。6d。offtheremaining9s。forthereductionintime，together2s。6d……andnotwithstandingthis，manyofthemsaidtheywouldratherwork10hours。\"l。c。
[110]\"ThoughIsignedit[thepetition！，IsaidatthetimeIwasputtingmyhandtoawrongthing。’’Thenwhydidyouputyourhandtoit？’’BecauseIshouldhavebeenturnedoffifIhadrefused。’Whenceitwouldappearthatthispetitionerfelthimself’oppressed，’butnotexactlybytheFactoryAct。\"l。c。，p。102。
[111]p。17，l。c。InMr。Homer’sdistrict10，270adultmalelabourerswerethusexaminedin181factories。TheirevidenceistobefoundintheappendixtotheFactoryReportsforthehalf—yearendingOctober1848。Theseexaminationsfurnishvaluablematerialinotherconnexionsalso。
[112]l。c。SeetheevidencecollectedbyLeonardHomerhimself，Nos。69，70，71，72，92，93，andthatcollectedbySub—lnspectorA。，Nos。51，52，58，59，62，70，oftheAppendix。Onemanufacturer，too，tellstheplaintruth。
SeeNo。14，andNo。265，l。c。
[113]Reports，&c。，for31stOctober，1848，pp。133，134。
[114]Reports，&c。，for30thApril，1848，p。47。
[115]Reports，&c。，for31stOctober，1848，p。130。
[116]Reports，&c。，l。c。，p。142。
[117]Reports&c。，for31stOctober，1850，pp。5，6。
[118]Thenatureofcapitalremainsthesameinitsdevelopedasinitsundevelopedform。Inthecodewhichtheinfluenceoftheslave—owners，shortlybeforetheoutbreakoftheAmericanCivilWar，imposedontheterritoryofNewMexico，itissaidthatthelabourer，inasmuchasthecapitalisthasboughthislabour—power，\"ishis（thecapitalist’s）money。\"ThesameviewwascurrentamongtheRomanpatricians。Themoneytheyhadadvancedtotheplebeiandebtorhadbeentransformedviathemeansofsubsistenceintothefleshandbloodofthedebtor。This\"fleshandblood\"were，therefore，\"theirmoney。’’Hence，theShylock—lawoftheTenTables。Linguet’shypothesisthatthepatriciancreditorsfromtimetotimeprepared，beyondtheTiber，bunquetsofdebtors’flesh，mayremainasundecidedasthatofDaumerontheChristianEuchanst。
[119]Reports，&c……for30thApril，1848，p。28。
[120]Thus，amongothers，PhilanthropistAshworthtoLeonardHomer，inadisgustingQuakerletter。（Reports，&c。，April，1849，p。4。）
[121]l。c。，p。140。
[122]Reports，&c。，for30thApril，1849，pp。21，22。Cflikeexamplesibid。，pp。4。5。
[123]ByI。andII。Will。IV。，ch。24，s。10，knownasSirJohnWobhouse’sFactoryAct，itwasforbiddentoanyownerofacotton—spinningorweavingmill，orthefather，son，orbrotherofsuchowner，toactasJusticeofthePeaceinanyinquiriesthatconcernedtheFactoryAct。
[124]l。c。
[125]Reports，&c。，for30thApril，1849，p。S。
[126]Reports，&c。，for31stOctober，1849，p。6。
[127]Reports，&c。，for30thApril，1849，p。21。
[128]Reports，&c。，for31stOctober，1848，p。95。
[129]SeeReports，&c。，for30thApril，1849，p。6，andthedetailedexplanationofthe\"shiftingsystem，\"byFactoryInspectorsHowellandSaunders，in\"Reports，&c。，for31stOctober，1848。\"SeealsothepetitiontotheQueenfromtheclergyofAshtonandvicinity，inthespringof1849，againsttheshiftsystem。\"
[130]Cf。forexample，·`TheFactoryQuestionandtheTenHours’gill。’，ByR。H。Greg，1837。
[131]F。Engels:’TheEnglishTenHours’Bill。\"（Inthe\"NeueRheinischeZeitung。
Politisch—oekonomischeRevue。\"EditedbyK。Marx。Aprilnumber，1850，p。
13。）Thesame\"high\"CourtofJusticediscovered，duringtheAmericanCivilWar，averbalambiguitywhichexactlyreversedthemeaningofthelawagainstthearmingofpirateships。
[132]Rep。，&c。，for30thApril，1850。
[133]Inwinter，from7a。m。to7p。m。maybesubstituted。
[134]\"Thepresentlaw（of1850）wasacompromisewherebytheemployedsurrenderedthebenefitoftheTenHours’Actfortheadvantageofoneuniformperiodforthecommencementandterminationofthelabourofthosewhoselabourisrestricted。\"（Reports，&c。，for30thApril，1852，p。14。）
[135]Repons，&c。，forSept。，1844，p。13。
[136]l。c。
[137]l。c。
[138]\"Reports，&c。，for31stOct。，1846，\"p。20。
[139]Reports，&c。，for31stOct。，1861，p。26。
[140]l。c。，p。27。Onthewholetheworkingpopulation，subjecttotheFactoryAct，hasgreatlyimprovedphysically。Allmedicaltestimonyagreesonthispoint，andpersonalobsenationatdifferenttimeshasconvincedmeofit。
Nevertheless，andexclusiveoftheterribledeath—rateofchildreninthefirstyearsoftheirlife，theofficialreportsofDr。Greenhowshowtheunfavourablehealthconditionofthemanufacturingdistrictsascomparedwith\"agriculturaldistrictsofnormalhealth。\"Asevidence，takethefollowingtablefromhis1861report:？
PecentageofAdultMalesEngagedinManufactures14。942。637。341。931。014。936。630。4？nbsp;
Death—ratefromPulmonaryAffectionsper100，000Males598708547611691588721726305
NameofDistrictWiganBlackburnHalifaxBradfordMaccles—
fieldLeekStoke—
upon—TrentWoolstantonEighthealthyagriculturaldistrictsDeath—ratefromPulmonaryAffectionsper100，000Females644734564603804705665727340
PecentageofAdultFemalesEngagedinManufactures18。034。920。430。026。017。219。313。9？nbsp;
KindofFemaleOccupationCottonDo。WorstedDo。SilkDo。EarthenwareDo。？nbsp;[141]ItiswellknownwithwhatreluctancetheEnglish\"Free—traders，\"gaveuptheprotectivedutyonthesilkmanufacture。InsteadoftheprotectionagainstFrenchimportation，theabsenceofprotectiontoEnglishfactorychildrennowsenestheirturn。
[142]During1859and1860，thezenithyearsoftheEnglishcottonindustry，somemanufacturer3tried，bythedecoybaitofhigherwagesforover—time，toreconciletheadultmaleoperativestoanextensionoftheworking—day。
Thehand—mulespinnersandself—actormincersputanendtotheexperimentbyapetitiontotheiremployersinwhichtheysay，\"Plainlyspeaking，ourlivesaretousaburthen;and，whileweareconfinedtothemillsnearlytwodaysaweekmorethantheotheroperativesofthecountry，wefeellikehelotsintheland，andthatweareperpetuatingasysteminjurioustoourselvesandfuturegenerations……This，therefore，istogiveyoumostrespectfulnoticethatwhenwecommenceworkagainaftertheChristmasandNewYear’sholidays，weshallwork60hoursperweek，andnomore，orfromsixtosix，withonehourandahalfout。\"（Reports，&rc。，for30thApril，1860，p。30。）
[143]OnthemeansthatthewordingofthisActaffordedforitsviolationcftheParliamentaryReturn\"FactoriesRegulationAct\"（6thAugust，1859），andinitLeonardHomer’s\"SuggestionsforamendingtheFactoryActstoenabletheInspectorstopreventillegalworking，nowbecomingveryprevalent。\"
[144]\"Childrenoftheageof8yearsandupwards，have，indeed，beenemployedfrom6a。m。to9p。m。duringthelasthalfyearinmydistrict。\"（Reports，&c。，for31stOctober，1857，p。39。）
[145]\"ThePrintworks’Actisadmittedtobeafailurebothwithreferencetoitseducationalandprotectiveprovisions。\"（Reports，&c。，for31stOctober，1862，p。52。）
[146]Thus，e。g。，E。PotterinalettertotheTimesofMarch24th，1863。TheTimesremindedhimofthemaoufacturers’revoltagainsttheTenHours’Bill。
[147]Thus，amongothers，Mr。W。Newmarch，collaboratorandeditorofTooke’s\"HistoryofPrices。\"Isitascientificadvancetomakecowardlyconcessionstopublicopinion？
[148]TheActpassedin1860，determinedthat，inregardtodyeandbleachworks，theworking—dayshouldbefixedonAugustIst，1861，provisionallyat12
hours，anddefinitelyonAugustIst，1862，at10hours，i。e。，at101/2hoursforordinarydays，and71/2forSaturday。Now，whenthefatalyear，1862，came，theoldfarcewasrepeated。Besides，themanufacturerspetitionedParliamenttoallowtheemploymentofyoungpersonsandwomenfor12hoursduringoneyearlonger。\"Intheexistingconditionofthetrade（thetimeofthecottonfamine），itwasueatlytotheadvantageoftheoperativestowork12hoursperday，andmakewageswhentheycould。\"
Abilltothiseffecthadbeenbroughtin，\"anditwasmainlyduetotheactionoftheoperativebleachersinScotlandthatthebillwasabandoned。\"
（Reports，&:c。，for31stOctober，1862，pp。14—15。）Thusdefeatedby—theveryworkpeople，inwhosenameitpretendedtospeakCapitaldiscovered，withthehelpoflawyerspectacles，thattheActof1860，drawnup，I;kealltheActsofParliamentforthe\"protectionoflabour，\"inequivocalphrases，gavethemapretexttoexcludefromitsworkingthecalenderersandfinishers。Englishjurisprudence，everthefaithfulservantofcapital，sanctionedintheCOunofCommonPleasthispieceofpettifogging。\"Theoperativeshavebeengreatlydisappointed……theyhavecomphinedofover—work，anditisgreatlytoberegrettedthattheclearintentionofthelegislatureshouldhavefailedbyreasonofafaultydefinition。\"（l。c。，p。18。）
[149]The\"open—airbleachers\"hadevadedthelawof1860，bymeansoftheliethatnowomenworkedatitinthenight。TheliewasexposedbytheFwtoryInspectors，andatthesametimeParliamentwas，bypetitionsffomtheoperatives，bereftofitsnotionsastothecoolmeadow—fragrance，inwhichbleachingintheopen—airwasreportedtotakeplace。Inthisaerialbleaching，drying—roomswereusedattemperaturesoffrom90°to100°Fahrenheit，inwhichtheworkwasdoneforthemostpartbygirls。\"Cooling\"isthetechnicalexpressionfortheiroccasionalescapefromthedrying—roomsintothefreshair。\"Fifteengirlsinstoves。Heatfrom80°to90°
forlinens，and100°andupwardsforcambrics。Twelvegirlsironinganddoing—upinasmallroomabout10feetsquare，inthecentreofwhichisaclosestove。Thegirlsstandroundthestove，whichthrowsoutaterrificheat，anddriesthecambricsrapidlyfortheironers。Thehoursofworkforthesehandsareunlimited。Ifbusy，theyworktill9or12atnightforsuccessivenights。\"（Reports，&c。，for31stOctober，1862，p。56。）
Amedicalmanstates:\"Nospecialhoursareallowedforcooling，butifthetemperaturegetstoohigh，ortheworkers’handsgetsoiledfromperspiration，theyareallowedtogooutforafewminutes……Myexperience，whichisconsiderable，intreatingthediseasesofstoveworkers，compelsmetoexpresstheopinionthattheirsanitaryconditionisbynomeanssohighasthatoftheoperativesinaspinningfactory（andCapital，initsmemorialstoParliament，hadpaintedthemasfloridlyhealthyafterthemannerofRubens。）Thediseasesmostobservableamongstthemarephthisis，bronchitis，irregularityofuterinefunctions，hysteriainitsmostaggravatedforms，andrheumatism。Allofthese，Ibelieve，areeitherdirectlyorindirectlyinducedbytheimpure，overheatedairoftheapartmentsinwhichthehandsareemployedandthewantofsufficientcomfortableclothingtoprotectthemfromthecold，dampatmosphere，inwinter，whengoingtotheirhomes。\"
（l。c。，pp。56—57。）TheFactoryInspectorsremarkedonthesupplementarylawof1860，tornfromtheseopen—airbleachers:\"TheActhasnotonlyfailedtoaffordthatprotectiontotheworkerswhichitappearstooffer，butcontainsaclause……apparentlysowordedthat，unlesspersonsaredetectedworkingafter8o’clockatnighttheyappeartocomeundernoprotectiveprovisionsatall，andiftheydosoworkthemodeofproofissodoubtfulthataconvictioncanscarcelyfollow。\"（l。c。，p。52。）
\"Toallintentsandpurposes，therefore，asanActforanybenevolentoreducationalpurpose，itisafailure;sinceitcanscarcelybecalledbenevolenttopermit，whichistantamounttocompelling，womenandchildrentowork14hoursadaywithorwithoutmeals，asthecasemaybe，andperhapsforlongerhoursthanthese，withoutlimitastoage，withoutreferencetosex，andwithoutregardtothesocialhabitsofthefamiliesoftheneighbourhood，inwhichsuchworks（bleachinganddyeing）aresituated。\"（Reports，&c。，for30thApril，1863，p。40。）
[150]Notetothe2ndEd。Since1866，whenIwrotetheabovepassages，areactionhasagainsetin。
[151]\"Theconductofeachoftheseclasses（capitalistsandworkmen）hasbeentheresultoftherelativesituaticoinwhichtheyhavebeenplaced。\"（Reports，&c。，for31stOctober，1848，p。113。）
[152]\"Theemployments，placedunderrestriction，wereconnectedwiththemanufactureoftextilefabricsbytheaidofsteamorwater—powerThereweretwoconditionstowhichanemploymentmustbesubjecttocauseittobeinspected，viz。，theuseofsteamorwaterpower，andthemanufactureofcertainspecifiedfibr=。\"（Reports，&c。，f。or31stOctober，1864，p。8。）
[153]Ontheconditionofso—calleddomesticindustries，speciallyvaluablematerialsaretobefoundinthelatfftreportsoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission。
[154]\"TheActsoflastSession（1864）……embraceadiversityofoccupations，thecustomsinwhichdiffergreatly，andtheuseofmechanicalpowertogivemotiontomachineryisnolongeroneoftheelementsnecessary。asformerly，toconstitute，inlegalphrase，a’Factory。’\"（Reports，&c。，for31stOctaber，1864，p。8。）
[155]Belgium，theparadiseofContinentalLiberalism，showsnotraceofthismovement。Eveninthecoalandmetalmineslabourersofbothsexes，andallages，areconsumed，inperfect\"freedom\"atanyperiodandthroughanylengthoftime。Ofevery1，000personsemployedthere，733aremen，88women。135boys，and44girlsunder16;intheblastfurnaces，&c。，ofevery1，000，668aremen，149women，98boys，and85girlsunder16。
Addtothisthelowwagesfortheenormousexploitafionofmatureandimmaturelabour—power。Theaveragedailypayforamanis2s。8d……forawoman，1s。8d……foraboy。1s。21/2d。Asaresult，Belgiumhadin1863，ascomparedwith1850，nearlydoubledboththeamountandthevalueofitsexportsofcoal，iron，&c。
[156]RobertOwen，soonafter1810，notonlymaintainedthenecessityofalimitationoftheworking—dayintheory，butactuallyintroducedthe10hours’dayintohisfactoryatNewLanark。ThiswaslaughedatasacommunisticUtopia;
sowerehis\"CombinationofchildrenseducationwithproductivelabourandtheCo—operativeSocietiesofworkingmen。firstcalledintobeingbyhim。To—day。thefirstUtopiaisaFactoryAct，thesecondfiguresasanofficialphraseinallFactoryActs，thethirdisalreadybeingusedasacloakforreactionaryhumbug。
[157]Ure:\"Frenchtranslation，PhilosophiedesManufactures。\"Paris，1836，Vol。
II，pp。39，40，67，77，&c。
[158]IntheCompteRenduoftheInternationalStatisticalCongressatParis，1855，itisstated:\"TheFrenchlaw，whichlimitsthelengthofdailylabourinfactoriesandworkshopsto12hours，doesnotconfinethisworktodefinitefixedhours。Forchildren’slabouronlythework—timeisprescabedasbetween5a。m。and9p。m。Therefore，someofthemastersusethenghtwhichthisfatalsilencegivesthemtokeeptheirworksgoing，withoutintermission，dayin，dayout，possiblywiththeexceptionofSunday。Forthispurposetheyusetwodifferentsetsofworkers，ofwhomneitherisintheworkshopmorethan12hoursatatime，buttheworkoftheestablishmentlastsdayandnight。Thelawissatisfied，butishumanity？\"Besides\"thedestructiveinfluenceornight—labouronthehumanorganism，\"stressisalsolaidupon\"thefatalinfluenceoftheassociationofthetwosexesbynightinthesamebadly—lightedworkshops。\"
[159]\"Forinstance，thereiswithinmydistrictoneoccupierwho，withinthesamecurtilage，isatthesametimeableacheranddyerundertheBleachingandDyeingWorksAct，aprinterunderthePrintWorksAct，andafinisherundertheFactoryAct。\"（ReponofMr。Baker，inReports，lic。，forOctober31st，1861，p。20。）AflerenumeratingthedifferentprovisionsoftheseActs，andthecomplicationsarisingfromthem，Mr。Bakersays:\"ItwillhenceappearthatitmustbeverydifficulttosecuretheexecutionofthesethreeActsofParliamentwheretheoccupierchoosestoevadethelaw。\"Butwhatisassuredtothelawyersbythisislaw—suits。
[160]ThustheFactoryInspectorsatlastventuretosay:\"Theseobjections（ofcapitaltothelegallimitationoftheworking—day）mustsuccumbbeforethebroadprincipleoftherightsoflabour……Thereisatimewhenthemaster’srightinhisworkman’slabourceases，andhistimebecomeshisown，eveniftherewerenoexhaustioninthequestion。\"（Reports，8cc。，for31stOct。，1862，p。54。）
[161]\"We，theworkersofDunkirk，declarethatthelengthoftimeoflabourrequiredunderthepresentsystemistoogreat，andthat，farfromleavingtheworkertimeforrestandeducatioo，itplungeshimintoacooditionofservitudebutlittlebetterthanslavery。Thatiswhywedecidethat8hoursareenoughforaworking—day，andoughttobelegallyrecognisedasenough;whywecalltoourhelpthatpowerfullever，thepress;……
andwhyweshallconsiderallthosethatrefuseusthishelpasenemiesofthereformoflabourandoftherightsofthelabourer。\"（ResolutionoftheWorkingMenofDunkirk，NewYorkState，1866。）
[162]Reports，&c。，forOct。，1848，p。112。
[163]\"Theproceedings（themanoeuvresofcapital，e。g。，from1848—50）haveafforded，moreover，incontrovertibleproofofthefallacyoftheassertionsooftenadvanced，thatoperativesneednoprotection，butmaybeconsideredasfreeagentsinthedisposaloftheonlypropertywhichtheypossess？thelabouroftheirhandsandthesweatoftheirbrows。\"（Reports，&c。，forApril30th，1850，p。45。）\"Freelabour（ifsoitmaybetermed）eveninafreecountry，requiresthestrongarmofthelawtoprotectit。\"（Reports，&c。，forOctober31st，1864，p。34。）\"Topermit，whichistantamounttocompelling……towork14hoursadaywithorwithoutmeals，\"&c。
（Repts。，&c。，forApril30th，1863，p。40。）
[164]FriedrichEngels，l。c。，p。5。
[165]The10Hours’Acthas，inthebranchesofindustrythatcomeunderit，\"putanendtotheprematuredecrepitudeoftheformerlong—hourworkers。\"
（Reports，&c。，for31stOct。，1859，p。47。）\"Capital（infactories）
canneverbeemployedinkeepingthemachineryinmotionbeyondalimitedtime，withoutcertaininjurytothehealthandmoralsofthelabourersemployed;andtheyarenotinapositiontoprotectthemselves。\"l。c。，p。8）
[166]\"Astillgreaterboonisthedistinctionatlastmadeclearbetweentheworker’sowntimeandhismaster’s。Theworkerknowsnowwhenthatwhichhesellsisended，andwhenhisownbegins;andbypossessingasureforeknowledgeofthis，isenabledtoprearrangehisownminutesforhisownpurposes。\"
（l。c。，p。52。）\"Bymakingthemmastersoftheirowntime（theFactoryActs）havegiventhemamoralenergywhichisdirectingthemtotheeventualpossessionofpoliticalpower\"（l。c。，p。47）。Withsuppressedirony，andinverywellweighedwords，theFactoryInspectorshintthattheactuallawalsofreesthecapitalistfromsomeofthebrutalitynaturaltoamanwhoisamereembodimentofcapital，andthatithasgivenhimtimeforalittle\"culture。\"\"Formerlythemasterhadnotimeforanythingbutmoney;
theservanthadnotimeforanythingbutlabour\"（l。c。，p。48）。
ChapterElevenKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartIII:
TheProductionofAbsoluteSurplus—ValueCHAPTERELEVEN:
RATEANDMASSOFSURPLUSVALUE
Inthischapter，ashitherto，thevalueoflabour—power，andthereforethepartoftheworkingdaynecessaryforthereproductionormaintenanceofthatlabour—power，aresupposedtobegiven，constantmagnitudes。
Thispremised，withtherate，themassisatthesametimegivenofthesurplusvaluethattheindividuallabourerfurnishestothecapitalistinadefiniteperiodoftime。If，e。g。，thenecessarylabouramountsto6hoursdaily，expressedinaquantumofgold=3shillings，then3s。
isthedailyvalueofonelabour—powerorthevalueofthecapitaladvancedinthebuyingofonelabour—power。If，further，therateofsurplusvaluebe=100%，thisvariablecapitalof3s。producesamassofsurplusvalueof3s。，orthelabourersuppliesdailyamassofsurpluslabourequalto6hours。
Butthevariablecapitalofacapitalististheexpressioninmoneyofthetotalvalueofallthelabour—powersthatheemployssimultaneously。
Itsvalueis，therefore，equaltotheaveragevalueofonelabour—power，multipliedbythenumberoflabour—powersemployed。Withagivenvalueoflabour—power，therefore，themagnitudeofthevariablecapitalvariesdirectlyasthenumberoflabourersemployedsimultaneously。Ifthedailyvalueofonelabour—power=3s。，thenacapitalof300s。mustbeadvancedinordertoexploitdaily100labour—powers，ofntimes3s。，inordertoexploitdailynlabour—powers。
Inthesameway，ifavariablecapitalof3s。，beingthedailyvalueofonelabour—power，produceadailysurplusvalueof3s。，avariablecapitalof300s。willproduceadailysurplusvalueof300s。，andoneofntimes3s。adailysurplusvalueofnx3s。Themassofthesurplusvalueproducedisthereforeequaltothesurplusvaluewhichtheworkingdayofonelabourersuppliesmultipliedbythenumberoflabourersemployed。Butasfurtherthemassofsurplusvaluewhichasinglelabourerproduces，thevalueoflabour—powerbeinggiven，isdeterminedbytherateofthesurplusvalue，thislawfollows:themassofthesurplusvalueproducedisequaltotheamountofthevariablecapitaladvanced，multipliedbytherateofsurplusvalue，inotherwords:itisdeterminedbythecompoundratiobetweenthenumberoflabour—powersexploitedsimultaneouslybythesamecapitalistandthedegreeofexploitationofeachindividuallabour—power。
LetthemassofthesurplusvaluebeS，thesurplusvaluesuppliedbytheindividuallabourerintheaveragedaysthevariablecapitaldailyadvancedinthepurchaseofoneindividuallabour—powerv，thesumtotalofthevariablecapitalV，thevalueofanaveragelabour—powerP，itsdegreeofexploitationa’（surplus—labour）
棗棗棗棗棗棗？;a（necessary—labour）andthenumberoflabourersemployedn;wehave:/s？xV;;v;S;;;a’;;;x？xn。p;p;aItisalwayssupposed，notonlythatthevalueofanaveragelabour—powerisconstant，butthatthelabourersemployedbyacapitalistarereducedtoaveragelabourers。Thereareexceptionalcasesinwhichthesurplusvalueproduceddoesnotincreaseinproportiontothenumberoflabourersexploited，butthenthevalueofthelabour—powerdoesnotremainconstant。
Intheproductionofadefinitemassofsurplusvalue，thereforethedecreaseofonefactormaybecompensatedbytheincreaseoftheother。
Ifthevariablecapitaldiminishes，andatthesametimetherateofsurplusvalueincreasesinthesameratio，themassofsurplusvalueproducedremainsunaltered。Ifonourearlierassumptionthecapitalistmustadvance300s。，inordertoexploit100labourersaday，andiftherateofsurplusvalueamountsto50%，thisvariablecapitalof300s。yieldsasurplusvalueof150s。orof100x3workinghours。Iftherateofsurplusvaluedoubles，ortheworkingday，insteadofbeingextendedfrom6to9，isextendedfrom6to12hoursandatthesametimevariablecapitalislessenedbyhalf，andreducedto150s。，ityieldsalsoasurplus—valueof150s。or50x6
workinghours。Diminutionofthevariablecapitalmaythereforebecompensatedbyaproportionateriseinthedegreeofexploitationoflabour—power，orthedecreaseinthenumberofthelabourersemployedbyaproportionateextensionoftheworkingday。Withincertainlimitsthereforethesupplyoflabourexploitablebycapitalisindependentofthesupplyoflabourers。[1]Onthecontrary，afallintherateofsurplusvalueleavesunalteredthemassofthesurplus—valueproduced，iftheamountofthevariablecapital，ornumberofthelabourersemployed，increasesinthesameproportion。
Nevertheless，thecompensationofadecreaseinthenumberoflabourersemployed，oroftheamountofvariablecapitaladvancedbyariseintherateofsurplusvalue。orbythelengtheningoftheworking—day，hasimpassablelimits。Whateverthevalueoflabour—powermaybe，whethertheworkingtimenecessaryforthemaintenanceofthelaboureris2or10
hours，thetotalvaluethatalabourercanproduce，dayin，dayout，isalwayslessthanthevalueinwhich24hoursoflabourareembodied，lessthan12s。，if12s。isthemoneyexpressionfor24hoursofrealisedlabour。