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　　IneachcaseStatecraftisanArt，andthefinancialpolicyisanartisticorcreativeworkinwhichquantitiesareusedbutdonotdirectordominate。

　　Bythislineofargumentitmayappearasifwehadrepudiatedtheentireutilityofascientificcalculus。This，however，isnotthecase。

　　Forthoughallthedeterminantactsofpolicyorwelfare，performedbyanindividualorasociety，involveorganicunityofdesign，andthequalitativeconsiderationsappertainingthereto，importantandindeednecessaryassistanceisrenderedbythequantitativeanalysisofpastactsexpressedintheformofscientificgeneralisations。Aclearerunderstandingofthenatureandextentofthiscooperationbetweenscienceandartintheconductoflifeenforcesthistruth。

　　&sect；11。SciencetakesitsstanduponatwofoldapplicationoftheassumptionoftheuniformityofNature，first，thatalldifferencesofcompositioncanbetreatedasdifferencesofquantityordegree，secondly，thathistoryrepeatsitself。Now，justsofarastheseassumptionsfitthefacts，Scienceisvalidforinterpretationandforguidance。Thisexplainswhyastronomy，physicsandchemistryaremore\'exact\'sciencesthanbiologyorpsychology，andwhytheyareabletogivemorereliableandauthoritativerulesfortheartsofnavigation，engineeringanddrug-making，thanthelattercanformedicine，forbreedingorforeducation。EdwardCarpenterhasremarkedthatastronomyisthemostexactoftheappliedsciences，becauseweknowleastaboutit，i。e。，becausewetreatitssubject-matteralmostentirelyfromthesinglequantitativestandpointofspacerelations。

　　Inallartsdealingentirelyormainlywithinorganicmatterscienceoccupiesaseatofhighauthority，becauseofthehighrelativeuniformityofthismatterandthecomparativeregularityofitsbehaviour。Inphysicsorininorganicchemistrytheindividualdifferencesoreccentricitiesofthematerialaresotrivialthattheycanusuallybedisregarded，andhistoryrepeatsitselfwithsomuchregularitythatquantitativelawsapply。

　　Thepassagefromtheinorganictotheorganicinvolves，aswerecognise，adoubleassertionofthequalitative:first，inrespectoftheunityanduniquenessoftheorganicstructure，andsecondly，byreasonofthenoveltythatattendseachactoforganicchange，vitalmovement，assimilation，growth，reproductionordecay。Theuniquenessoftheindividualorganismandthenoveltyofeachofitschangesareanassertionofthequalitativenatureofthesubject-matter。Sofarasthisqualitativenatureprevailsandcountsfor\'conduct，\'scientificanalysisisimpotentforinterpretationandadvice。Whenorganicmatterattainsthecharacterofconsciousnessandthestillhighercharacterofself-consciousness，thequalitativeconsiderationsreachamaximum，andtheinterpretationanddirectivepowerofscienceaminimum。Butthatminimummustnotbedisparaged。Itisnotinconsiderable。

　　Theassistancewhichscientificlawscanrendertothefinestartsofhumanconductisveryimportantandiscapableofconstantaugmentation。Forsofarashumannatureisuniformandstableamongtheunitswhichconstitutethelifewhoseconductandwelfareareinquestion，theinterpretationanddirectionofsciencehasvalidity。Tothisextentautilitariancalculus，baseduponanalysisofpastexperience，canaidthestatesmanorthephilanthropistinworkingouthisdesign。Intheregionofindustrytheextentofthisscientificservicewillbeevengreaterthanintheartsofconductwhosematerialismoreexclusivelyorganicorpsychical。Forindustry，consideredasanartofhumanwelfare，willconsistlargelyintheorderlyandprogressiveadaptationofinorganicmatter，oroforganicmatterwhoseorganicdifferencescanbeignored，tothesatisfactionofthoseneedsofmankindinwhichmenaresimilar。Thatistosay，inindustrythereexistsandwillremainagreatdealofworkandofconsumptionwhichisessentiallyofauniformorroutinecharacter，requiringtobedonebymeasuredrules，anddependingforitsutilityupontheexclusionofallindividualityorquality。Thisapplies，notonlytothoseindustrialprocesseswhichwetermstrictlymechanical，buttoagreatmanyotherswherequalityisamatterofcomparativeindifference。Intheprogressiveeconomyofhumanwelfaremechanicalorroutineproductionwillevenfrequentlydisplaceanartinwhichqualitywasoncedisplayed。Sohome-baking，intowhichnosmalldegreeofculinaryskillcouldgo，hasgivenwaytomachine-bakinginwhichtheelementofpersonalskillplaysadiminishedpart，andonwhichtheindividualtasteoftheconsumerexertslittledirectiveinfluence。Thismaybetakenasatypicalexampleofthedisplacementofqualitativeartbyquantitativemechanism。Itis，ofcourse，ofverywideextension，being，infact，commensuratewiththeapplicationofscientificmethodsintheworldofindustry。Indeed，thesciencesofchemistryandphysics，botanyandbiology，areeverywhereinvadingthe\'arts\'ofindustryandimposing\'rules\'uponindustrialprocesses。

　　Evenmoresignificantistheapplicationofthestillinfantilescienceofpsychologytotheartsofbusinessorganisationandenterpriseandofmarketing。Howcanpsychologyassistinthedelicateartofrecommendinggoodstopossiblepurchasers？Onlyonthesuppositionthatthereissufficientuniformityandstabilityinhumannaturetoenablethemeasuredrulesofpastexperimentuponothermentoholdofthisman。Onlysofarasmenarereallythesamesortofstuff，orsofarasanydifferencesaremeasurableandcalculable。Noveltyalonecanbaffleappliedscience。

　　Ifitweretrue，assomeappeartothink，thatmachineryandroutinemethodweredestinedcontinuallytoabsorbalargerandlargerproportionofhumanwork，andtodirectalargerandlargershareofhumanlife，economicsciencewithitsquantitativecalculuswouldacquireacontinualincreaseofexactitude，andagrowingcapacityfordirectionintheartofsocialconduct。Butif，asseemsmorereasonable，progressiveindustrymustservetofeedaricherlibertyandnoveltyofindividualandsociallife，thedomainofquantitativecalculus，thoughabsolutelyenlarging，mayberelativelyshrinking。

　　Wenowseemabletogetamoreaccurateunderstandingofwhatascientificcalculuscandofortheassistanceoftheartofsocialwelfare。Itcandoforthatartwhatitcandoforeveryotherart，viz。，furnishrulesfortheregular。Sofarasthestuffwhichconstitutesorcomposeshumanwelfareisuniform，i。e。，sofarasmenarealikeintheirneeds，andthematerialforthesatisfactionoftheseneedsissimilar，itcansupplyrulesofsocialeconomywhichwillhaveahighdegreeofvalidity。Thoughnotwohumanorganismsareidenticalinstructure，allhumanorganismswithinawiderangeofenvironmentaresosimilarinthekindsoffood，airandothermaterialgoodswhichtheyrequire，thatitissound\'socialpolicy\'toignoretheirdifferencesandtotreatthemasidenticalinthequalitiesoftheirdemandsanddissimilaronlyinthequantities。Thepracticaleconomyof\'markets\'standsuponthisbasis，andthequantitativetreatmentfindsitstruejustificationintheutilityofmarkets。Therecanbenomarketforthesingleor\'singular\'consumer。Amarket，i。e。，apracticalinstrumentformeasurementofeconomicwants，impliesastandardisationofthedesiresofbuyersandsellers。Justsofarasthemembersofaneconomiccommunityarethusstandardisedintheirpreferences，areeconomiclawsapplicable。Thus，forthescientificinterpretationofsuchacommunity，muchdependsupontherelativestrengthandimportanceofthestandardisingandtheindividualisingforces。Inasocietywheretheso-called\'arts\'

　　ofindustryandofconsumptionhavealikepassedbyimitationortraditionintofirmconventionsfromwhichtheleasttransgressionisbrandedasanimpietyorawickedness，economiclaws，baseduponasufficientstudyofthepastandpresent，willenableonetopredictthefuturewithconsiderableaccuracy。Primitiveorbackwardcommunitiesareusuallyinthisconservativecondition。Moreover，astheyadvanceandbecomeeconomicallyprogressive，itisobservablethatthemostconservativeandmostcalculablewantsandactivitiesarethoserelatingtothesatisfactionoftheprimarymaterialneeds。Henceitisevidentthatscientificpredictions，basedeitherupongeneralconsiderationsofhumannatureoruponpastmeasurements，willcomenearesttofulfilment，accordingastheyrelatetotheproductionandconsumptionofthosearticlesmostdeeplyembeddedinthestandardofliving。Conveniencesandcomfortsaremorechangeablethannecessaries，andluxuriesmostchangeableofall。Nowthemarginalorleastusefulportionofthosesupplies，whichintheearlierormostusefulincrementssatisfysomeprimeneed，areoftenluxuries。Themarginalportionofthewheatsupplygoesforcakes，oristhrownintothedust-binaswastebread:themarginaloilgoesintomotorrides。Takingexpenditureingeneral，wefindthelasttenpercentofeveryincomemostincalculableinitsoutlay，becauseitrepresentsthosepurchasesinwhichcustomisweakestandindividualtasteoropportunitythestrongest。Inaword，itispreciselyinthoseeconomicactionswhichexpressmarginalpreferences，thepivotofthemechanicalcalculus，thatwefindthemaximumofinstabilityandincalculability。

　　Foreachofthesenicemarginalpreferencesproceedsdirectlyfromthechangingnatureoftheorganicpersonality。Whereasfiftypercentofaman\'sexpendituremayexpressthecommonsatisfactionofthefixedphysicalneedswhichcustomhasembeddedinastandardofsubsistence，thirtypercentthelighterbutfairlystablecomfortsbelongingtohisclass，thelasttwentypercentisthepartinwhichheexpresseshisindividualcharacterandhiscravingsforpersonaldistinctionandvarietyofenjoyment。

　　Theformalinvalidityofthe\'marginalist\'methodhasalreadybeendisclosed。Theconsiderationsjustadducedindicateitspracticalfutilityasameansofguidanceforeconomicart。NeitherasadeductivenorasaninductivesciencecanEconomicsfurnishaccuraterulesforcalculatingordirectingfutureeconomicevents。Itcanonlyprophesywithinsuchlimitsasaresetbytheassumptionsofthestabilityofhumannatureandofitsenvironment。Itsrulesor\'laws\'willbestinterpretandpredictthoseeconomicactionswhicharemostremotefromthemargin，i。e。，thosewhicharemostconservativeorregular。Marginalpreferenceswillthereforebepreciselythosewhichitisprecludedfrominterpretingorpredictingbythenecessarydefectoftheintellectualinstrument。

　　&sect；12。Thusthefinalfutilityofthemechanicalmethodofmarginalismliesinitsinsistenceuponapplyingaquantitativemethodofinterpretationtothemostqualitativeportionofthesubject-matter，thatportionwheretheorganicconditionsofpersonalityandnoveltyareofparamountsignificance。

　　Indeed，itisforthisreasonthateconomicscience，thoughabletosupplyrelevantandimportantevidence，canneversolveconclusivelyanysocial-economicproblem，eveninthatfieldofactionwhereherauthorityismoststronglyasserted。Agivenriseorfallofpricecanneverproducethesameeffectupondemandtwicerunning。Why？Becausethedesiresandbeliefsofthemoreunsettledsectionofbuyers，the\'marginal\'buyers，willhavechanged。Norcanthisalterationineffectupondemandbecalculated。

　　Whynot？Becausethechangesindesiresandbeliefsareorganicqualitativechanges。Observationsofpastpricemovementsandlawsbaseduponthemarenottherebyrendereduseless。Fortheseorganicchangeswilloftenbenegligiblesofarasthebulkofthemarketisconcerned。Buttheynegatethepossibilitiesofexactprediction，andoftenofapproximatepredictionsonthemargin。

　　Thisiswhythe\'great\'businessmanoftenpreferstoactbyintuitionthanbyexpresscalculation。Herecognisesthat，sofarasthemoredelicatejudgmentsareconcerned，his\'feeling\'of\'howthingswillgo\'ismoretrustworthythananyestimate。Hedoesnotactblindly。Hefeedsandfortieshismindwithfactsandfigures，untilheissteepedinfamiliaritywiththesubjectmatter。Buthedoesnotdeliberatelybalanceagainstoneanotherthesemeasuredforcesandcommithimselftotheresultant。Forheisawarethattheproblemisnotoneofmeremechanics，acounting-houseproposition，butoneinvolvingforitssolutionsympathyandimagination。

　　Butthecrucialinstanceoftheorganicandspiritualnatureofadistinctlyeconomicproblemisinthecaseofcredit。Themathematicalmechanicaltreatmentclaimstofinditssupremejustificationinthepartplayedbymoney，themostabstractofeconomicphenomena。Credit，initsobjectivesense，istheeconomicplenipotentiary，theabsoluterepresentativeofeconomicpower。Forhewhohascredithasthecommandofland，capital，labour，abilityofeverysort，atanytimeandinanyplace。Creditisproductivepowerandpurchasingpower，forhewhopossessesitcanconvertitintoanysortofsupplyordemandhechooses。Itisabsolutelyquantitative，fluid，divisibleandmeasurable。Suchiscredit，treatedobjectivelybyeconomicscience。Butcreditisalsotheheartandbrainsoftheindustrialsystem。Subjectivelyregarded，itisanessentiallyspiritualthing，adelicate，sensitivecreatureofhumanbeliefsanddesires。Itsvolumeanditspowerforpracticalworkareaffectedbythisspiritualnature。Foritsspringsarefear，hope，prestige，superstition，sympathyandunderstanding。

　　Itstruebasisisneithergold，norgoods，butcredibility。Andthatqualityofcredibilityisfluctuatingallthetimeforeveryindividual，everybusiness，everystate。Newunpredictableeventsareconstantlyaffectingit。Noonecanthereforesaywithanyassuranceofcorrectness\"aBankshouldkeep20%ofitsresourcesinreserveoratcall，\"orputanysuchrigidlimitfortheoperationsofanyBank。Ifwedosetanysuchquantitativelimit，weshouldrealisethatitisonlyaroughpracticalrule，which，ifinterpretedwithautomaticrigour，leadstowasteanderrorintheactualworkingoffinance。Forbynoplottingofcurvescanyoureckonthefutureflowofhumancredibility，ortheapplicationofagivenamountofconcretecredittotheever-changinggainsandrisksofhumanindustry。TakethecriticalcaseofacollapseofcreditandtherunuponaBank。Topredictwithevenapproximateaccuracythecourseofsucharun，ortocheckitbycalculations，baseduponpastexperienceofsimilarcrisesappliedtotherecordsofpresentassetsandliabilities，wouldbeimpossible。Why？

　　Chieflybecauseofthepsycho-physicalfactors，theplayoforganicforces。

　　Youcancalculatewithcloseexactitudethestrainimposeduponabridgeofagivensize，materialandstructurebyagivenweight，distributionandpaceoftraffic。Youcannotcalculatewithequalexactitudethestrainwhichagivenquantityofliabilities，howevercarefullyanalysedandgraded，willimposeuponaBankreserveofagivensize。

　　Theincalculableelementconsistsoforganicnovelty，thechangesduetohavingtodealwithmatternotdeadandhomogeneousbutlivingandorganised。

　　Thecitationofsuchinstancesisnotdesignedtoprovethatmonetaryandotherstatisticsarepracticallyuselessforthepredictionandsolutionofsocial-economicproblems。Onthecontrary，theyareexceedinglyuseful。

　　Buttheformalexactitudewhichtheycarryintheirmethodcanneverbeconveyedintotheworktheyarerequiredtoassistindoing。Themostabundantsupplyofthemostaccuratestatistics，utilisedbythemostapprovedmethodsofeconomicscience，canonlyaffordresultsofarudeapproximatevalidity，expressedintendencies。Thepracticalmaninbusiness，inpolitics，ineverymodeofsocialconduct，willsupplementandcorrecttheapplicationofthescientificrulebytheplayofprivatejudgmentandintuition。***

　　&sect；13Ifthisistrueasregardsallpredictionsoffutureeconomichappenings，itistillmoretrueoftheconsciouspurposiveguidanceofthesehappeningsbytheapplicationofahumanstandardofvalues。Thepracticalstatesmanorsocialreformer，confrontedwithaconcretesocialproblem，e。g。，thedemandforastateenforcementofanationalminimumofwages，localoptionfortheclosureofpublichouses，orareferendumforconstitutionalchanges，willfindhimself\'payingattention\'and\'givingweight\'toanumberofdiverseandopposingconsiderations。Howwilltheselectionandthe\'weighing\'oftheseconsiderationsbebroughtabout？

　　Notdirectlyandconsciouslybytheapplicationofwhatmaybetermedhissocialideal，theimageinhissoulofthesocietywhichseemstohimabsolutelythemostdesirable。Therelationofthatultimateidealtotheparticularschemeunderconsideration，e。g。，anationalminimumwage，maybetoodistantandtoodubioustoaffordvaluationanddirection。Theoperativeidealwillbederivative，oneofarelatedsetofpossible-desirables，limitedandpracticableidealswhichformthemostpotentinstrumentsofhisstatecraft。

　　SuchanoperativeidealforanEnglishmanatthepresenttimemightbethevisionoftheState，asthecollectivewill，securingbylawaclearlyconceivedstandardofsoundefficientlifefortheordinaryworking-classfamily。Thispresentpracticalideal，derivedfromawiderconceptionofthedutyoftheStateinrelationtotheindividualmembersofacivilisedsociety，woulditselfbeafarwiderschemethantheparticularproposal，thatofnationalminimumwage，whichitwasinvokedtoassess。Thestatesman，enlightenedbythisderivativeideal，wouldapplyitasatestandstandardtotheparticularproposal。Hewouldconsiderit，notmerely\'uponitsownmerits\'butasincorporatedinthemorecomplexorganicplanofhisnationalminimum。Thisorganicplanandpurposewoulddeterminethe\'value\'

　　hegavetothevarious\'pros\'and\'cons，\'asforinstancetotheconsiderationhowfarlegalinterventionmightweakentheprivateorganisationofworkmenintheirtrade-unions，sodamagingotherbenefitsoftrade-unionism，ortheconsiderationhowfaritwasbettertowaitandsecureamoredemocraticallyadministeredStatebeforeentrustingitwiththedelicatefunctionofadjustingpecuniaryarrangementsbetweenworkmenandemployers。Thisplanorpurposeofanationalminimum，asapossibledesirable，willofcoursenotremainquitestableinhismind，willnotbearigidstandard。Itwillchangesomewhatinpattern，andindefinitenessofoutline，assomefreshouterorinnerexperiencemakesanypartofit，orthewhole，seemmoreorlessdesirable，ormoreorlesspossible，thanformerly。

　　&sect；14。Buttheimportantpointtonoteisthatitisthislargerorganicplanorvision，thecharacterandchangesofwhichareessentiallyqualitative，thatfurnishesthestandardandstampswiththeirrespective\'values\'thevariousconsiderationswhicharesaidto\'determine\'thepracticalvalueoftheproposalanditsacceptanceorrejection。Nosocial-economicproposal，howeverdistinctivelyquantitativeitappears，canbehumanlyvaluedinanyotherway。Itisforthisreasonthatamereeconomistisalwaysdisabledfromgivingpracticaladviceinanycourseofconduct。

　　Taketwoexamples。Politicaleconomycanlegitimatelyapplylawsofvaluesoastoshowthat，undercompetitiveconditions，anationmustproducealargerquantityofmarketablegoodsunderapolicyoffreeimportsthanunderanysortofTariff。ButthatproofinitselfcanneverbesufficientgroundforrejectingeitheraTariffforrevenue，orevenaTariffforprotection。FortheStatesmancannevertakethemaximumofmarketablevaluesashisfinalandsufficienttest。Ifitcouldbeshownthatnationalsecuritywereinvolvedinaprotectivesystemwhichkeptallnecessaryindustrieswithinthenationallimits，hemightplead\'defenceismorethanopulence。\'Or，ifitcouldbeshownthataprotectivetariffcouldbeoperatedsoastodistributeaslightlyreducedaggregateofwealthinamannermoreconducivetothepopularwelfareandthatthisconsiderationwasnotoffsetbyfearofcorruptionorofimpairedindustrialefficiency，orotherdisadvantages，theStatesmanmightrightlyadoptaTariffintheteethof\'economiclaws。\'9

　　Or，takeanotherexample，theproposalforaneighthoursday，securedbylaw。Apurelyeconomicenquirymight，byconsideringtheelasticityoflabourinvariousemployments，arriveattheconclusionthatageneralshorteningofthework-daywouldinvolveapresentreductionoftheproductbysomuchpercentageindifferenttrades，andthatitmightinvolveareductionofprofitsandofwagesandaprobablelossofsomuchexporttradeinvariousindustries。Itmightevenpresentsometentativeestimatesastotheeffectsofthepressureofthisnewcostofproductioninstimulatingimprovedeconomiesinmines，factoriesorrailways。Suchinformationwouldbeusefulandrelevant，butnotauthoritativeuponthejudgmentoftheStatesman。Forthesocialvalueofashorterwork-daywoulddependmainlyupontheorganicreactionsofincreasedleisureuponthewholestandardoflifeoftheworkingfamily，howitaffectedhisexpenditureofhiswages，itseffectuponhishealth，educationandrecreations，thecultivationoffamilyaffection，thebetterperformanceofneighbourlyandcivicduties，andallthatisinvolvedinmorelibertyandalargeroutlookuponlife。

　　Itisevident，inthefirstplace，thattheseessentialconsiderationslieoutsidethecalculationsoftheeconomist，and，secondly，thattheactualvaluesetoneachofthemwilldependuponandbederivedfromthewholefaithandsocialvisionofthestatesmaninquestion。

　　Thissocialorhumanvaluationofaso-calledeconomicprocessorgood，involvesthentwodeparturesfromaquantitativecalculus；first，thereductionoftheparticulareconomicfactorsthemselvesfromfinancialorotherquantitativetermstovitalorsubjectiveterms；secondly，therestorationofthisartificiallyseveredeconomicprocesstothelargerintegratedprocessofhumanlifefromwhichitwasabstractedbythescientificspecialismoftheeconomist。

　　Theeconomistcanfindthefacts，buthecannotfindtheirhumanimportanceorvalue，becauseassigninghumanvaluemeansreferringtoanextra-economicstandard。Itmeansmorethanthis。Itmeansareferencetoanextra-scientificstandard，onewhosedistinctivecharacterconsistsinitsbeingtheexpressionandoperationoftheorganiccomplexofforcescomposingthesocialpersonalityasmirroredintheconsciousorunconsciouseffortsoftheindividualsandoftheSocietywhomakethevaluationsandframetheirconductuponthem。

　　&sect；15。Inconclusionitisnecessarytoenforceanexceedinglyimportantdistinctionintheconceptionofsocialorhumanvaluation。Thetermmeanstwothings，theattributionofhumanorsocialvaluebyanindividualandbyasociety。InmostofourillustrationswehavetakenthestandpointoftheStatesmanorthereformer，orofsomeotherperson，andregardedsocialvaluesfromhiseyes。Wehavetakenhisidealasasocialideal。

　　Soitisinthesenseofbeinghisidealofasociety。Butitisessentialalsotoconsidersocietyasseekingtorealiseitsownideal。\'Thewholesuccessionofmenduringmanyages，\'saidPascal，\'shouldbeconsideredasoneMan，everlivingandconstantlylearning。\'Thisisthetrueorganicviewofhumanity，regardedeitherasasinglewholeorinitsseveralraces，nationsorcommunities。Theapophthegmisnotprimarilyofpoliticalorofethicalsignificance，butastatementofnaturalhistory。Itiscorroboratedinastrikingmannerbymodernbiologicalteaching，withitscontinuityofthegerm-plasm，itsembryonicrecapitulationanditsspecificevolution。

　　Butnotuntilnaturalhistoryisrescuedfromtheexcessivedominationofapurelyphysicalbiology，andisreadinthelanguageofcollectivepsycho-physics，dowegraspthefullbearingoftheorganicconceptioninitsapplicationtoasociety。Forthisconceptionofmankindasworkingoutthehumancareerbytheoperationofitsoriginalsupplyoffacultiesandfeelings，inwhichinstinctivephysicalmotivestakeanincreasingadmixtureofconsciousrationalguidance，isthekeytoanunderstandingoftheascentofman。Thereisnoclearevidenceofthecontinuousascentofmanregardedasindividual，atanyratewithin\'historic\'times。Thereisevidenceoftheascentofhumansocietytowardsalargerandclosercomplexityofhumanrelationsandaclearerintellectualandmoralconsciousness。

　　Thismeansthatmankind，asawhole，anditsseveralsocieties，isbecomingmorecapableofahumanvaluationandofacollectiveconductofaffairsguidedbythisconsciousprocess。Inpolitics，regardedinitswidermeaning，thistruthhastakenshapeinthemodernconceptionofthegeneralwill，whichinpopularly-governedStatesfunctionsthroughpublicopinionandrepresentativeinstitutions。Followingourexaminationofthelimitsofscienceor\'rationalism\'intheprocessesofvaluationandofconductonthepartofindividuals，weshallexpecttofindsomecorrespondinglimitsincollectiveman。Inotherwords，thegeneralwillofapeoplecannotberegarded，eitherinitsestimatesoritsdeterminations，asamerelyoramainlycalculativeprocess，workingouttherespectivevaluesofexistingcircumstances，orproposedchanges，intermsofclearly-definedutility。

　　Itdoesnotevenwithfullerinformation，widereducationandfirmerself-control，tendtowardsthisscientificpolitics。Collectiveself-government，likeindividualself-government，willalwaysremainessentiallyanart，itsdirectionanddeterminantmotivesbeingcreative，qualitative，androotedintheprimalinstinctsofman。

　　&sect；16。Itisuponthisconceptionofthecollectiveinstinctsofsocietyregardedasanorganismthatarationalfaithindemocracyisbased。

　　Theanimalorganism，itselfasocietyofcells，isendowedwithenergyofbodyandmind，operatingthroughanequipmentofinstinctivechannelstowardsitsownsurvivalanddevelopmentandthesurvivalanddevelopmentofitsspecies。Wherethereisdangerlesttoomuchofthisenergyshouldbeconsumeduponindividualends，toolittleonspecificends，thesocialorself-sacrificinginstinctsarestrengthenedintheindividual，andarereinforcedbytheherdorspecificfeelingsofotherindividuals，aswhereplunderersofthecommonstockorshirkersinthecommontasksaredestroyedbythehiveorherd。Theinstinctforthesurvivalanddevelopmentofthehive，herdorspecies，cannotbesatisfactorilyexplainedasbelongingonlytothepsycho-physicalequipmentoftheindividualmembers。Onthisbasis，viz。，thatofattributingasocialnatureonlytotheindividualmembersofasociety，theactsofdevotionandself-sacrifice，andstillmoretheactsofpreparatoryskill，theelaborateperformanceofdeedsthataremeanstothesurvivalandwell-beingofafuturegeneration，becomemerehaphazardmiracles。TakethefamiliarexampleoftheHuntingWasp。

　　\'ThelarvaeofthevariousHuntingWaspsdemandamotionlesspreywhowillnot，bydefensivemovements，endangerthedelicateeggand，afterwards，thetinygrubfixedtoapartofthepreyInaddition，itisnecessarythatthisinertpreyshallbeneverthelessalive；forthegrubwouldnotacceptacorpseasfood。Itsvictualsmustbefreshmeatandnotpreservedprovisions。ThesetwoantagonisticconditionsofimmobilityandlifetheHymenopterarealisesbymeansofparalysis，whichdestroysmovementandleavestheorganicprincipleoflifeintact。Withaskillwhichourmostfamousvivisectorswouldenvy，theinsectdrivesitspoisonstingintothenervecentres，theseatofmuscularstimulation。Theoperatoreitherconfineshimselftoasinglestrokeofthelancet，orelsegivestwo，orthreeormore，accordingtothestructureoftheparticularnervoussystemandthenumberandgroupingofthenervecentres。Theexactanatomyofthevictimguidestheneedle。\'10

　　Suchconductisnotmadeintelligiblebyanyotherhypothesisthanthatofacollectivelifeofthespecies，theindividuallivesbeing，infact，partsofacommonspecificlifetowardswhichtheycontributeinamannersimilartothatinwhichthecells，withtheirparticularlives，contributetothelifeoftheirorganism。Onlybythisapplicationorextensionofthe\'organicmetaphor\'totherelationsbetweenmembersofanexistinggeneration，andbetweensuccessivegenerations，canweconstructanintelligiblesequenceofcausationbetweenthesepreparatoryactsofindividualinsectsofonegenerationandtheresultsaccruingtootherindividualsofanothergeneration。

　　This\'generalwill\'maywenotcallitso？，urgingtheindividualstothefulfilmentofapurposewhichisbutslightlytheirs，andisnotmainlythatoftheexistinggeneration，butwhichembodiesthegeneralpurposeofthespeciesorsomewiderpurposeofastilllargerorganicwhole，canonlyberealisedforthoughtandfeelingasasinglecurrentofwillimplyingandconferringunityoflifeuponthespeciesorthelargerunity。

　　In\'lower\'animalsphereswerecognisethisfact。Butthereisatendencytoholdthatman，subjecttosomesuchspecificurgeorinstinctsinhisprimitivestages，hasbecomemoreandmoreindividualisedandhasdonesolargelybybecomingmorerational。Thegradualdisplacementofinstinctbyreason，itiscontended，hasmademanmoreself-sufficient，hislifemoreofthenatureofanend，lessofameanstowardsthelifeofhistribeornation，oreventowardsthatofhumanityasawhole。Isthisso？Therearetwoissuesthatopenhere。Intheprocessofcivilisationamancertainlybecomesmoreindividual。Hediffersincharactermorefromhisfellowsthaninearliertimes；heisabletodevote，anddoesdevote，alargershareofhisenergiesofbodyandmindtoactivitieswhichareprimarilyself-regarding。Moreover，hetendstorelylessexclusivelyorpredominantlyuponwhatwouldbecalledhisinstinctsandmoreuponhisreason。

　　&sect；17。The\'generalwill，\'whichthroughformsoftribalcustomandofgregariousinstinctpulsedsovigorouslyandsoinsistentlyintriballife，seemstohaveweakenedwitheveryexpansionofsocialareaandwiththeadvancingcomplexityofsocialrelations。Theeconomyofhumanenergyallowsindividualstoapplyalargershareofthelife-forcethatflowsthroughthemtowhatappeartothemtheirprivatepurposes，asmallertotheprotectionanddevelopmentofthesocietyorspecies。Ifweweretoassignanyfinalvaliditytotheoppositionofindividualandsociety，thischangemightberegardedasashrinkageofthedominionofthe\'generalwill，\'thespecificascontrastedwiththeindividualpurpose。Butthoughthenarrowintensetribalwillmaythusappeartohaveyieldedtoabroader，feeblerandlessimperativeformofnationalorsocialwill，itbynomeansfollowsthatthislatterworkslesseffectivelyforthecommongood。Asmanbecomesmoreintelligentandmorereflective，andhasfortifiedhimselfwithlargerandmorereliablerecordsandbettermethodsofcontrollinghisenvironment，theinstinctiveoperationsofthewillofgroupsoftribalanimalsgiveplacetomoreconscious，morerational，purposes。

　　Thechangemustnotindeedbeoverstressed。Thevalidityofthegeneralwilldoesnotdependuponthedegreeofconsciousrationalpurposeithasattained。Itremainsto-dayinthemosthighlycivilisedcommunitieswhatitwasinprimitivetriballife，anorganicinstinct。Therationalisationofthisblindfacultyoforganicself-protectionandadvancementhasnotyetgoneveryfar。Indeed，itisexceedinglyimportanttorecognisethatanorganicinstinctofconservationandofprogressunderliesthewisdomofthepeople。Thosewhoconsiderpoliticsarightfulmonopolyoftheeducatedclassesdoublyerr；first，inignoringtheinstinctivewisdomofthepeople，secondlyinclaimingforeducationahighervalueforpoliticaldirectionthanitpossesses。ThepoliticalwisdomoftheRomanorthegermanicpeoplespartakesfarmoreofanaturalsagacitythanofareasonedprocess。Ifthisappliestothegreatstatesman，itisstillmoreapplicabletothebodyofthepeoplewhoseconsentoractivecooperationcontributestotheevolutionofastableandaprogressivestate。Itisimpossibletounderstandortoexplainanylongandcomplexmovementinnationalhistorybypiecingtogethertheconsciousrationaldesignsoftheindividualsorgroupsofmenwhoexecutedtheseveralmovesofwhichthemovementseemedtoconsist。

　　SuchastructureastheBritishConstitution，suchanepisodeastheFrenchRevolution，cannotbeotherwiseregarded，initsorganicunity，thanasaproductofenergiesofcommonwillandpurpose，wider，deeperandobscurerintheirworkingthantheparticularintelligiblemotivesandaimswhichappearedonthestageofparliamentarydebates，militarycampaignsormobviolence。Everystudentofthe\'spirit\'ofoneofthesegreatnationaldramasisdriventorecognisesomemouldingordirectinginfluence，someurgeofevents，bywhichtheyseemtounfoldthemselvesinalargerandmorecomplexpatternorconsistencythanisperceivedbyanyoftheagents。

　　Thereissometimesatendencytogiveamysticalinterpretationtothistruth。SoVictorHugowritesoftheFrenchRevolution:

　　\'&Ecirc；treunmembredelaConvention，c\'&eacute；tait&ecirc；treunevaguedel\'Ocean。Etceci&eacute；taitvraidesplusgrands。Laforced\'impulsionvenaitd\'enhaut。IlyavaitdanslaConventionunevolont&eacute；qui&eacute；taitcelledetouseta\'&eacute；taitcelledepersonne。Cettevolont&eacute；

　　&eacute；taituneid&eacute；e，id&eacute；eindomptableetd&eacute；mesur&eacute；equisoufflaitdansl\'ombreduhautduciel。NousappelonscelalaR&eacute；volution。

　　Quandcetteid&eacute；epassaitelleabattaitl\'unetsoulevaitl\'autre；

　　elleemportaitcelui-cien&eacute；cumeetbrisaitcelui-l&agrave；aux&eacute；cueils。Cetteid&eacute；esavaito&ugrave；elleallait，etpoussaitlegouffredevantelle。Imputerlar&eacute；volutionauxhommes，c\'estimputerlamar&eacute；eauxflots。\'11

　　Theexplanationofourcolonialempireastheresultofacareerofconquestandexpansionconducted\'inafitofabsenceofmind\'isanexactstatementofthetruth。Forthoughafewgreatempire-builders，suchasWarrenHastings，Molesworth，Elgin，GreyandRhodes，mayhaveplayedtheirpartswithsomemeasureofconsciousdesign，theindividualchannelsofthiscurrentofadventurousandconstructiveenergyembodiedinthegeneralprocesshadaslittleanideaoftheimperialedificeasanyworkingbeeofthegreatsymmetricalstructureofthehive。

　　&sect；18。Thissenseof\'manifestdestiny\'issurelynoillusion。Itistheevolutionarymethodbywhichallorganicprocessisachieved，whetherinthegrowthofanoaktreefromitsacorn，ofamotorcarfromtheearliesthand-barrow，amusicalsymphonyfromasavagetom-tom，oramodernfederalstatefromtheprimitivetribalorder。Ineverycaseanumberofwhatseemseparatelymotivedactionsareseentocarryandexpressthecontinuityofsomecommontendencywhichbringsthemunderthecontrolofasinglecollectivedesign。Thiswiderpurposeisseenoperatinguponthelargerorganicstageofconductinwayscloselyanalogoustotheoperationsofthepoetortheartistinanyhumanfineart。Itexhibitstheurgeofaninnerflowofpsycho-physicalenergyseekingeverfinermodesofexpressionbymouldingthematerialsatitsdisposal。Assoonaswegraspthisideaofthecollectiveartistryofaspeciesoranyotherorganicgroup，werecognisehowlackinginlogicalfinalityistheacceptedantithesisofinstinctandreason。Thereasonoftheorganismwillappearasablindinstinctivedrivetothecellwhoseconductitdirects。Sothespecificpurposewillshowitselfasinstinctintheindividualorganism，thoughitmaybeneitherblindnorunconscioustothespeciestakenastheorganicunit。Nay，wemaygofurtherandsuggestthatadvancingreasonintheindividualanimalmayconsistinagrowingsympathyandsyn-noesiswiththeoperationsofthewiderorganism。Mustnotthisbewhathappenswhenwhatwetermreasonendorsesandreinforcestheinstinctiveactionsofspecificpreservationandwell-being，substitutingreflectionforimpulse，plansforcustoms，orderlyandchanginginstitutionsforblindordinanceswhoseauthorityisgregariousimitationorSuperstitiousprestige？Arewewrongwhenwetraceaninstinctofobediencetoachieftransformedintoareasonedsubmissiontothelaw？Maynotthenthewholeprocessoftherationalisationofmanberegardedasabringingoftheindividualmanintovitalcommunionofthoughtandfeelingwiththethoughtsandfeelingsoftherace，ofhumanity，perhapsofthelargerorganicbeingofthekosmos？Foramanonlybecomesrationalsofarashetakesadisinterestedviewofhimself，hisfellow-menandoftheworldhelivesin，andthewider，closer，keenerthatviewthemorerationalhebecomes。Thustheevolutionofthemindofmanintoafullerrationalitymeansthestrengtheningandclarifyingofthoserelationsoffeelingandthoughtwhichbindhimtohisfellowsandtohisworldandwhicharerootedinthe\'blind\'instinctsofgregarious，superstitious，curiousman。

　　&sect；19。Theupshotoftheseconsiderationsistobreakdowntheabruptnessofthecontrastbetweenreasonandinstinctandtorecogniseinreasonitselfthesubtlestplayofthecreativeinstinct。The\'disinterested\'

　　natureofthesearchfortruthhasbeenasubjectofderisionamongsomethinkers，whoseenowaybywhichmantheindividualcandisengagehimselffromtheselfishmotiveswhichseemtorulehimandtodisposealikeofhisemotionalandintellectualenergies。Inmanregardedasindividualitisverydifficulttorecogniseanypossibilityofadisinterestedmotive，becauseallsuchmotivesareruledoutexhypothesi。Butregardtheindividualmanassubjecttothedominantcontrolofsomewiderlifethanhis，thatofrace，society，humanityorkosmos，andthedifficultydisappears。Hebecomescapableof\'disinterested\'curiosity，\'disinterested\'love，\'self-sacrifices\'

　　ofvariouskinds，becauseheisacentreofwiderintereststhanthoseofhisownparticularself。TheactionofaJapanesewhothrowshimselfupontheRussianbayonetsatthewordofcommand，ofadoctorwhoinoculateshimselfwithadeadlypoisonforthesakeofscience，thesteadylifelongtoilofmillionsofpeasantsgrowingthefoodsupplyforunknownmillionsoftown-dwellers，arenolonger\'disinterested\'whentheyarelookedatfromthestandpointoftheinterestsofhumanityasawhole。Thiscollectivewillandintelligencecanneverbeconsideredwholly\'blind\'whenregardedfromthecollectivestandpoint。Everydirectiveinstinctofanorganism，atanyrateintheanimalworld，mustbeaccreditedwithsomerelatedemotion，12

　　andthisemotion，regardedasafactinconsciousness，mustbeaccreditedwithsomemeasureofintelligence。Thecreaturesubjecttothedriveofanemotionmusthavesomeideaofwhatheisabout，thoughthefullpsycho-biological\'purpose\'ofhisactionmaybehiddenfromhim。Thisorganicstandpointgivesanintelligiblemeaningtowhatwemaycallthe\'naturalwisdomofthepeople。\'Theherd，thetribe，thenationisendowedwithinstinctsofself-protectionandofgrowth。Theseinstinctsareaccompaniedbycorrespondingemotionswhich，accordingtothedegreeofintelligencetheycontain，impelittoarightoreconomicaluseofthephysicalandspiritualenvironmentforsurvivaland\'progress。\'Theinstinctiveandemotionalstreamofthiscommonlifebecomesmore\'rational\'asthefactorsofintelligenceaccompanyingtheemotionsbecomeclearer，bettercoordinatedandendowedwithlargercapacityofcentraldirection。Intheevolutionofanimalorganismsthisgrowthofrationalityimplies，andiscompassedby，adeclineofthespecialinstinctswithaconsequentweakeningofthespecialemotionsattachedtothem，andthesubstitutionofaflexiblegeneralinstinctoperatingthroughacentralisednervoussystemandcoordinatingthespecialorganicemotionsandactivitiestoserveamoreclearlyconceivedorganicpurposeoftheindividualortherace。Reason，regardedasamotivepowerandnotasamereintellectualorgan，mustbeconsideredasthisgeneralinstinctofsurvivalandgrowth，havingitsrootsintheapparentlyseparateinstinctsofhunger，procreation，shelter，pugnacity，flight，gregariousness，protectionofyoung，curiosity，constructiveness，acquisitivenessandthelike，andutilisingtheemotionspropertotheseseveralinstinctsfortheeconomyofsomemoregeneralplanoflife。Reasoning，asan\'intellectualprocess，\'

　　willprobablyderiveitsemotionalfoodandimpetusprincipallyfromtheemotionscarriedbytheinstinctsofflightandpursuit，whichinvolvequickjudgmentintheuseofmeans，andbythecuriosityandconstructivenesswhichimpelthemorereflectivestudyandadaptationofmaterialenvironment。

　　Itis，however，nopurposeofminetoenterintotheparticularsofthistheoryofthenaturaloriginsofreason。Itissufficienttorecognise；

　　firstthatpriortothedawnof\'reason\'inorganicevolution，theinstinctscarryandapplyawisdomofdirectionoftheirown；secondlythatwhenreasontakesovermuchofthisdirectingpoweritoperatesbycoordinating，notbycreating，motivepower。

　　Sowhenwesubstitutefortheindividualorganismtheherd，thetribe，thenation，ascendingtolargercollectivewholes，sustainedbyaclearerconsciousnessofunityandafulleruseofcentralconsciouspurpose，wefollowthesameeconomyofgovernment。If，asisoftenurged，anation，regardedasanorganism，mustbeclassedasacomparativelyprimitivetype，onalevelratherwiththespongesoralgaethanwiththehigheranimals，weshallexpecttofindthataverylargemeasureofsuch\'wisdom\'asitpossesseswillbeinstinctiveratherthan\'rational。\'Theevolutionofageneralwill，whetheroperativebypublicopinionorgovernmentalinstitutions，willonsuchahypothesispossessnogreatdegreeofcentralityorclearconsciousness。Goodgovernmentinsuchasocietycouldnotbecompassedbyanoligarchyorevenarepresentativeassemblyassumingameasureofdetailedandfar-sightedpolicyforwhichthecollectivelifewasnotyetripe。Alargemeasureofwhatfromtherationalstandpointwouldrankas\'opportunism\'wouldbethetruepolicyatsuchastageofsocialevolution，andthewisestatesmanwouldkeephiseartothegroundsoastolearntheinstinctivemovementsofthepopularmindwhichwouldyieldthebestfreightofpoliticalwisdomathisdisposal。OnlyaseducationandcloserandmorereliablecommunicationselevatedtheorganicstructureofSociety，impartinghigherspirituality，morecentralityandclearerconsciousnesstoitslife，shouldweexpectanyconsiderablerationalisationofthegeneralwill。Meanwhilearisethetemptationanddangeroftheformalinstrumentsofgovernmentfallingintothehandsofalittlehighlyself-consciousgrouporclass，whomayseektoimposeupontheconductofthenationitsclearerplansandfar-sightedpurposes\"underthenameandpretextofthecommonwealth。\"Theabsoluteoractualwisdomoftheirwilltheywillbeapttorepresentasembodyingtherealityofthegeneralwill。Itiswhattheythink\'thepeople\'oughttowillandthereforewhatthepeoplewillcometowillassoonastheyarereallycapableofwillingintelligently!

　　Itis，however，exceedinglyimportanttotryandrecognisetheinstinctivewisdomofthepeople，inorderthatamisrepresentativegovernmentmaybepreventedfromignoringitandsubstitutingtherationalismofsomelittleconsciousclass。

　　Thisdoesnotmeanthatagovernmentmustalwaysgovernandadaptitslawstothelevelofthecurrentfeelings，desiresandaspirationsoftheaverageman，givinghimnoleadorstimulustohigherrationality。Suchacoursewouldbetoignorethatcapacityforprogressandthatsusceptibilitytoproximateidealswhicharethemselvesimplantedintheinstinctsofmankind。Butitdoesrequirethatagovernmentshallkeepitselfintheclosestsympathywiththeconcretefeelingsandideasofthepeople，maintainingsuchcontactsasshallenableitsactsofpolicytorankassubstantiallycorrectinterpretationsofthegeneralwill，notasthedesignsofasupremegoverningcasteorgroupofinterests，pumpeddownthroughsomeartfullycontrivedelectoralmachinerysoastoreceivethefalseformalimpressof\'thegeneralwill。\'

　　Thesereflectionsuponthenatureofpopulargovernmentmayappeartohavecarriedusfarafield。Buttheyhavebeennoirrelevantexcursion。

　　Foruponourviewofthenatureandmeasureofrationalitytobeimputedtotheprocessesofreformorprogressinnationallifemustdependourviewofthepartwhichcanbeplayedbythesocialscienceswhichareinvokedasthechiefinstrumentsofconsciouscollectiveconduct。

　　Recognisingthatsocialprogressinallitsdepartmentsremainsalwaysacollectiveart，inspiredandsustainedbycreativeimpulseswhichoweneithertheiroriginortheirvaliditytoscience，weshallregardthesocialsciencesasservantsratherthandirectorsofsocialprogress。Weshallbeconcernedtoask，Whataretheproperandparticularservicessuchsciencescanrender？Howcantheyassistapeopleinutilisingitshumanandnaturalresourcesfortheattainmentofthebestconditionsofhumanlife，individualandsocial？

　　Thisworkiswrittenasapartialandillustrativeanswertothesequestions。Takingindustry，thatdepartmentofsocialconductmostsusceptibleofthequantitativemeasurementwhichistheinstrumentofscience，wehaveendeavoredtoconstructandapplyanorganonofhumanvaluationtoitsactivitiesandachievements。Recognisingthatindustry，regardedfromtheindividualorthesocialstandpoint，wasanorganicactivity，involvingcontinualreactionsuponthewholelifeoftheindividualandthesociety，weinsistedthatthestandardofvaluationmustbeconstructedintermsoforganicwell-being。Inotherwords，industry，bothfromitsproductiveanditsconsumptiveside，mustbevaluedintermsofindividualandsocialhealth，thattermbeingselectedastheonewhichbestexpressestheconditionsofconservationandofprogressuniversallyrecognisedastheessentialsofa\'valuable\'life。Intheactualinterpretationofthisorganicwelfare，wetookforourvaluer\'enlightened\'common-sense。Therootsofthiscommon-sensewefindlaidinthesilent，instinctiveorganicstrivingsofmankind。Itisthebusinessofscience，ororganisedknowledge，todirectthesestrivingssoastoenablethemtoattaintheirendsmoreeconomically。Itdoesthisbyinterpretingexperienceandsupplyingtheinterpretationintheshapeof\'laws\'toenlightencommon-senseandsoenableittochooseitspaths。

　　Fortheeconomyofblindinstinctsisonlyaccommodatedtosimpleactivitiesinastableenvironment，andiseventhensubjecttoenormousvitalwastes。

　　Forcomplicatedactivitiesinarapidlychangingandcomplexenvironment，ageneralinstinctofadaptabilityofmeanstoends，involvingconsciousreflection，isrequired。Reasonisthisgeneralinstinctandscienceisitsinstrument。Society，asitsprocessesofevolutionbecomemoreconscious，willbeabletousemoreprofitablytheservicesofscience。Thoseservicesconsistnotinauthoritativelegislationforsocialconduct，forlawsbaseduponexperienceofthepastcanhavenofullauthoritytobindthefuture。

　　Faithandrisk-taking，involvinglargeelementsoftheincalculable，areinherentinorganicprocesses，andaretheverysapofspiritualinterestinlife。Theycanneverbebroughtunderthedominionofascientificeconomy。

　　Butthemainstapleineveryartofconductisrepetitionandconsideredadaptation，restinguponacontinuityofconditions。Forthispartofsocialconductscience，whensufficientlyequipped，canandwillofferauthoritativeadvice。Throughoutallnaturetheartsofconservationandcreationruntogether。Theartofconservationisthepracticalfunctionofscience:

　　theartofcreationeverremainsaregionofbeckoningliberty，continuallyannexedbyscience，andyetundiminishedinitssizeandtsappeal。

　　\'ForallexperienceisanarchwherethroughGleamsthatuntravelledlandwhosemarginfadesForeverandforeveraswemove。\'

　　NOTES:

　　1。ItwaspreciselyonthisrockthatJ。S。Mill\'sutilitarianismsplit。

　　HetriedtoincorporateinthequantitativecalculusofBenthamitepleasureandpaindistinctionsofthequalityorworthofdifferentsortsofpleasureandpain，andfailedtofurnishanymethodofreducingthemtocommonterms。

　　2。Wicksteed，CommonSenseofPoliticalEconomy

　　7。Thisolderdoctrineofmarginalism，concernedwiththecomparisonofmarginalutilities，ormarginalcosts，intheapplicationofexpenditureofproductiveenergy，mustnotbeconfusedwiththenoveldoctrinewhichwediscussedinChapterXIinrelationtowages。Inthenewerdoctrineanyunitofasupplymayberegardedasthemarginalunitandeveryunitasequallyproductiveoruseful。Accordingtotheolderdoctrineeachunithasadifferentcostorutility。

　　8。ProfessorPigouinhisWealthandWelfarediscusseswithskillandprecisionthemeasurableinfluencesofanincreaseofthegeneraldividendupongeneralwelfare，butomitstotakeintoconsiderationthe\'cost\'factorswhichenterinto\'welfare，\'howeverthattermbedefined。

　　9。Protectionistscanseldom，ifever，pleadsuccessfullyeitherofthesecases。ByreducingthecommunityofeconomicinterestsbetweennationsProtectionnormallyincreasesthechancesofwar，whilelesseningthenationalresourceswhicharethesinewsofwar。So，likewise，itsnormaltendencyistoworsenthedistributionofWealthwithinthenation。