uponthegrowthofmaterialconsumptionandareasonableregulationofthegrowthofpopulation。For，asluxuryandmaterialwasteareseenlargelytoariseasinstrumentsforthedisplayofindividualprowessincompetitiveindustry，theremovalofthatcompetitionfromfieldswhichyieldlargemeansforsuchdisplaywouldnecessarilyquenchthezestwhichitexhibits，aswellasstopthesourcesofsuchextravagantexpenditure。Forwhenprofusedisplayofmaterialapparatusisnolongerpossible，thenaturaldesireforpersonaldistinction，whichisthedeepest-rootedofallpersonaldesires，willtendmoreandmoretofindexpressioninthoseartsofrefinedlivingwhicharemoretrulypersonalinthattheycausethemoreintellectualandspiritualqualitiesofpersonalitytoshineforth。If，forthequantitativedisplayofmaterialgoods，therecangraduallybesubstitutedaqualitativedisplayofspiritualgoods，thischangewillbeattendedbyacorrespondingchangeineconomicactivities。Therewillbeareductioninthecoarserformsofproductiveenergymakinglargedraftsuponthematerialresourcesofnature，andanincreaseofthehigherformsofenergywhosedraftsonthesematerialresourcesarerelativelysmall。
Theproportionofnon-materialtomaterialwealthwillincrease，andtherewillbeacorrespondingincreaseintheproportionofproductiveactivitiesthatcontainlargefactorsofcreativeinterest。Everyenlargementofthescopeforfreeindividualexpressionthrougheconomicdemand，evenforpurelymaterialgoods，willhaveanecessaryeffectincurbingthedominionofmachineryandofroutinelabour。Forsocialarrangementswhichenableandinciteeachconsumertoseekamorepersonalsatisfactionofhisindividualneedswillforceproducerstostudytheseindividualneedsandsatisfythem。Thiscannotbedonebymeremachine-economy，whichrestsupontheoppositehypothesisthatlargenumbersofconsumerswillconsenttosinktheirindividualdifferencesofneedandtasteacceptingcertainroutineformsofgoodswhichdonotexactlymeettherequirementsofanyoneofthem。Itis，therefore，reasonabletoexpectthatamoreequalandequitabledistributionofincomewillevokeinthemassesofpopulation，whonowconsenttoconsumecommon\'routine\'goodsbecausetheycannotaffordtoconsulttheirparticulartastesandpreferences，amorepersonalanddiscriminativedemand，whichwillsetstrictlimitsuponthemachineeconomyandcallforalargerapplicationofindividualskillinthevariouscrafts。
Orif，valuingmorehighlyasfieldsforpersonalexpressionthelessmaterialelementsintheirstandardofliving，theystillconsenttoutiliseroutineindustryforthesatisfactionoftheircommonphysicalneeds，theywillapplyanincreasingproportionoftheirinterestsandtheirincomestotheacquisitionandenjoymentofthosegoods，artistic，intellectual，emotional，whicharemoreennoblingalikeintheirproductionandtheirconsumption。
§；7Afinalworduponpopulation。Istherenotreasontobelieveandhopethatthissounderdistributionofworkandwealthwillcontributetoasatisfactorysolutionbothofthequantitativeandthequalitativepopulationquestion？ifwomenwerenolongerforcedbyeconomicpressureintomarriagesforwhichtheyhadnonaturalinclination，muchunfitparentageandmuchincompetentnurturewouldbeaverted。Iftheywerefreetoliveunmarried，ortochoosethefatheroftheirchildrenandthesizeoftheirfamily，thenormalcurrentofthoseinstinctsmakingforthepreservationandinstinctoftherace，obstructedbyartificialbarriersofeconomiccircumstances，wouldberestoredtotheirnaturalcourse。Ifthesupportofayoungfamilywerenolongeraheavyandinjuriousstrainupontheeconomicresourcesoftheparentsandtheirfuturecareeragraveanxiety，thehumanloveofchildrenandtheattractionsofacompletehomelifewouldprobablycheckthatrapiddeclineofthebirth-ratewhichtomanyisoneofthedarkestfeaturesofourpresentorder。Itwouldnot，indeed，restoretherecklesspropagationofformertimeswhichimposedonparents，andchieflyuponthemother，aburdeninjuriousinitsprivateincidenceanddetrimentaltosociety。Butwhilethebettereconomicorderwouldstopcompulsorymarriagesandundesiredandthereforeundesirableoffspring，itwouldrestoretheplayofthenormalphiloprogenitiveinstincts。Theneteffectwouldseemtobesomeretardationofthedeclineofbirth-rateinthosetypesoffamilieswheretheconditions，physicalandpsychical，appearfavourabletogoodnatureandgoodnurtureforchildren，andapositiveeliminationofcertaintypesofunionunfavourabletosoundoffspring。
Thetotaleffectuponthequantitativeissuewouldofcoursedependuponthebalancebetweenthisfreerplayofthephiloprogenitiveinstinctandtheotherinfluences，notdirectlyaffectedbyeconomiccauses，whichmakeforsmallerfamilies。Butthatthequalityorcharacterofthepopulationmustbeimprovedbythemorenaturalplayoftherejectiveandselectiveinfluenceshereindicatedcanhardlyadmitofcontroversy。Indeed，itmaywellbeurgedthatthecrowningtestimonytothevalidityofthehumanlawofdistributionwillconsistinthehigherqualityofhumanlifeitwillevokebyliberatingandnourishingthenaturalartofeugenicsinsociety。
NOTES:
1。Ruskinhadacuriousnotionofthissortcf。TimeandTide，par。107，MuneraPulveris，par。109，ForsClavigera，Letterlxxxii，andtherecentAmerican\'ScientificManagement\'appearstoendorseit。
2。TimeandTide，par。123。
CHAPTERXXII:SOCIALSCIENCEAND
SOCIALART
§；1。Thetaskofahumanvaluationofindustryinvolvedattheoutsetthearbitraryassumptionofastandardofvalue。Thatstandardconsistedinaconceptionofhumanwell-beingapplicabletothevariousformsofhumanlife，manasindividual，asgroupornation，ashumanity。Startingfromthatconceptionofthehealth，physicalandspiritual，oftheindividualhumanorganism，whichisofwidestacceptance，weproceededtoapplytheorganicmetaphortothelargergroupings，soastobuildupanintelligiblestandardofsocialwell-being。Thisstandard，atoncephysicalandspiritual，staticandprogressive，wasassumedtobeofsuchakindastoprovideaharmonyofindividualwelfareswhenthegrowingsocialnatureofmanwastakenintodueaccount。
Withthestandardofhumanwell-beingwethenproceededtoassignvaluestotheproductiveandtheconsumptiveprocessesofwhichindustryconsists，examiningthemintheirbearinguponthewelfareoftheindividualsandthesocietiesengaginginthem。
Nowthismodeofprocedure，theonlypossible，ofcourseinvolvedanimmensepetitioprincipii。Theassumptionofanycloseagreementastothenatureofindividualwell-being，stillmoreofsocialwell-being，waslogicallyquiteunwarranted。
Economicvalueshave，indeed，anagreed，exactandmeasurablemeaning，derivedfromthenatureofthemonetarystandardinwhichtheyareexpressed。
Now，nosuchstandardofthehumanvalueofeconomicgoodsorprocessescanbeestablished。Yetwepretendedtosetupastandardofsocialvalueandtoapplyacalculusbaseduponit，claimingtoassessthehumanworthwhichunderliestheeconomiccostsandutilitiesthatenterintoeconomicvalues。
Hasthisprocedureprovedutterlyillicit？Iventuretothinknot。
Thoughattheoutsetourstandardwasonlyageneralphrasecommittingnobodytoanything，theprocessofconcreteapplication，intestingtheactualformsofworkandwealthwhichmakeupindustry，gavetoitacontinualincreaseofmeaning。Whilethewidestdivergencewouldbefoundintheformaldefinitionsofsuchtermsas\"humanwelfare\"or\"socialprogress，\"
alargeandgrowingbodyofagreementwouldemerge，whenasufficientnumberofpracticalissueshadbeenbrought-upforconsideration。Thetruthofourstandardandthevalidityofourcalculusareestablishedbythisworkingtest。Itisnotwonderfulthatthisshouldbeso，forthenatureandcircumstancesofmankindhavesomuchincommon，andtheprocessesofcivilisationaresopowerfullyassimilatingthem，astofurnishacontinuallyincreasingcommunityofexperienceandfeeling。Itis，ofcourse，thisfundof\'commonsense\'thatconstitutesthetruecriterion。Theassumptionthat\'commonsense\'isadequateforataskatoncesograveanddelicatemay，indeed，appearverydisputable。Grantingthathumanexperiencehassomuchincommon，canitbeclaimedthatthereasoningandthefeelingbasedonthisexperiencewillbesocongruousandsosoundastofurnishanyreliableguideforconduct？Surely\'commonsense\'initsbroadestpopularsensecangoaverylittlewaytowardssuchataskasahumaninterpretationofindustry。
Thereisnodoubtagooddealofforceinthisobjection。Ifwearetoinvoke\'commonsense\'forthepurposesofaninterpretationoravaluation，itmustevidentlybewhatistermedan\'enlightenedcommonsense。\'Andhereatoncewearebroughtintodangerlestenlightenmentshouldnotsupplywhatisrequired，viz。，aclearerormorefullyconsciousmodeofcommonsense，butadistortedorsophisticatedmode。Howrealthisdangeris，especiallyintheconductofpublicaffairs，mayberecognisedfromtheexcessivepartplayedbycertainhighlyconsciousandover-vocalinterestsofthecommercialandintellectualclassesintheartofgovernment。ThemostpressingtaskofCivilisationintheself-governingnationsofourtimeissotospreadtheareaofeffectiveenlightenmentastosubstitutethecommonsenseofthemanyforthatofthefew，andtomakeitprevail。
Itisthiscommonsense，moreorlessenlightened，thatthedisinterestedstatesmantakesforthesanctionofhisreadingofthegeneralwillwhichheendeavourstoexpressintheconductofpublicaffairs。Thatitisneveratanytimeacertain，aperfectlycoherent，aprecisecriterion，willbereadilyadmitted。Butthatitissufficientlyintelligible，sufficientlysound，isthenecessarypresuppositionofalldemocraticstatecraft。And，sofarasitisthusserviceable，itsuppliesavalidstandardandavalidcalculusofsocialvalues。Thoughthereadingofthisstandardandtheapplicationofthiscalculuswillalwaysbesubjecttosomebiasofpersonalidiosyncrasy，theweightofthegeneraljudgmentcommonlyprevailsinthemoreimportantprocessesofsocialvaluation。
But，inpinningourfaithtoenlightenedcommonsenseforaninterpretationorvaluationofindustry，wemustnotallowourselvestobedeceivedastotheamountof\'scientificaccuracy\'whichattendssuchaprocedure。
Whilethisstandardcanandmustsupplytherulesandmeasurementswhichweapplyintheprocessesofdetailedanalysisandcomparisonbywhichweestimatethecostsandutilitiesandthenethumanvaluesofthevariousindustrialactivitiesandproducts，wemustnotputintothisstandardastabilityitdoesnotpossess，orintothequantitativemethodsitusesanauthorityforsocialconductwhichtheyareinherentlydisqualifiedfromyielding。
§；2。ThescienceandartofsoCietyhavesufferedsomuchfromwantofexactandmeasuredinformationthatitisonlyrightandnaturalforimmenseimportancetobeattachedtothecollectionofmassesoforderedandmeasuredsocialfacts。Ifasufficientnumberoftrainedinvestigatorscouldbesettoworktogather，measure，siftandtabulate，thevariousordersofcrudefactrelatingtotheemployment，wages，housing，expenditure，health，thrift，education，andotherconcreteconditionsofthepoorergradesoftownandcountrydwellers，itseemsasifanumberofaccurateandvalidgeneralisationswouldemergebyclearinductionuponwhichcouldbeconstructedanabsolutelyscientifictreatmentofpoverty。Or，again，totakeanarrowerandmoredistinctivelyeconomicissue，thatoftheshorterworkingday。Ifacarefulseriesofobservationsandexperimentscouldbemadeinanumberofrepresentativebusinesses，astotheeffectuponthesize，costandqualityofoutputproducedbygivenreductionsinthehoursoflabouramongvariousclassesofworkers，itmightappearasifanaccuratelygradedsocialeconomyoftheworkingdaycouldbeattainedbycalculations。
Butthoughstatesmen，philanthropistsandreformersaremoreandmoreinfluencedintheirjudgmentsandpoliciesbythesemeasuredfacts，nosafemechanicalrulesfortheguidanceoftheirconductinanysocialproblemcanbebaseduponthem。Thefactsandfigureswhichappearsohardandsoreliableareoftenverysoftandineffectivetoolsforthesocialpractitioner。
Thereareseveraldefectsinthemregardedasinstrumentsofsocialprogress。
Itishardlyeverpossibletoprovecausationbymeansofthem。Youmayobtainthemostexactstatisticsofhousingconditionsandofdeath-ratesforthepopulationofagroupoftowns，butyoucannotprovetowhatextent\'backtoback\'housesaffectinfantmortality。Nofiguresprofessingtomeasurethecausalconnectionbetweendrinkandcrimeorinsanity，incomeandbirth-rate，oranyothertwosocialphenomena，possessthedegreeofvaliditytheyclaim。Why？Becauseyoucanneverisolatethefactorscompletelyinanyorganicorsocialproblem，andyoucanneverknowhowfaryouhavefailedtoisolatethem。Youmay，indeed，byvaryingtheconditionsofyourexperimentsorobservationssufficiently，obtainpracticalproofoforganiccausation，butyoucanseldomexpressthiscausationintermsofanyquantitativeaccuracy。Stillmoreisthistrueofpsychologicalandsocialproblems。
Apurelydescriptivescienceofsocietymayattainaconsiderabledegreeofquantitativeaccuracy，butthelawsexpressingthecausalrelationsofthesemeasuredfactswillalwayslackthecertaintyofoperationandthemeasurabilityofactionbelongingtothelawsofchemistryandphysics。
Nowthechieffactswithwhichthestatesmanandthesocialreformerareconcernedinformingjudgmentsandpoliciesaretheselawsofcausalrelation，andnotthecrudemeasuredfactsthatconstitutetherawmaterialofstatistics。Thiscomparativeinexactitudeorlackofrigidityinthelawsofsocialscienceconstitutesthe。firstdifficultyinapplyingthesciencetotheartofsocialconductwiththesameamountofconfidencewithwhichthelawsofphysicsandchemistryareappliedtothemechanicalarts。Butanotherdifficultyquiteasgraveasthiswantofrigidityinsocialfactsistheinstabilityofthestandard。Inallprocessesofphysicalmeasurementitiscustomarytomakeallowancesforerrorsduetowhatiscalled\'thepersonalequation，\'abnormalitiesofobservationintheexperimenter。
Butthestandardofhumanvaluation，theenlightenedcommonsenseofacommunity，appliedtointerpretsocialphenomenaintermsof\'utility\'
or\'welfare，\'willevidentlybesubjecttomuchwidervariations，andtheinterpretationofthisstandardbystatesmen，orotherindividualagentsofsociety，willbesubjectagaintowideerrorsofpersonalbias。
Illustratingfromtheeconomicspherewhichisourconcern，thatspecialisationofindustriallifewhichhasmadethreequartersofourpopulationtown-dwellersandismakingournationcontinuallymoredependentuponforeignsuppliesoffood，willhaveaverydifferentvaluesetonitbythenarrowernationalismwhichbelievestheinterestsandambitionsofnationstobeirreconcilable，andbythewiderpoliticaloutlookwhichconceivestheeconomicinterdependenceofnationsasinitselfdesirableandasthebestguaranteeofnationalsecurity。Oragain，adifferenceofvieworsentimentregardingtherelativeworthofthepersonalqualitiesofenterpriseandself-relianceontheonehand，ofploddingindustryandsocialityupontheother，mustmateriallyaffectthevaluesgiventosuchphenomenaasemigration，publicprovisionagainstunemployment，copartnership，taxationofhighincomesorinheritances。
Indeeditisquitemanifestthatwitheverydifferenceoftherangeofsympathyandimaginationthemeaningwhichenlightenedcommonsensewillgivetosocialwelfare，andtoeveryfactsubmittedtothistest，willvary。
Theseconsiderationsmayseematfirstsighttoinvalidatetheentirepurposeofthisbook，theendeavourtoapplyasocialcalculusforthevaluationofindustry。Solongasthecostandutilityofeconomicmaterialandprocessisexpressedintermsofmoney，youhaveafixedstandardcapableofyieldingexactvaluations。Endeavourtoresolvethiscostandutilityintotermsofhumanwelfareordesirability，youappeartohaveadoptedafluctuatingstandardthatcangivenoserviceableinformation。
§；3。Thetruth，ofcourse，isthatascientificvaluationofanythingcanonlyproceedbywayofquantitativeanalysis。Astandardofvaluationwhichshouldregardqualitativedifferencesasultimatewouldnotbescientificatall。Itmightbeaestheticorhygienicorethical，accordingtothenatureofthequalitativedifferencesinvolved。Astrictlyscientificvaluationofwealth，orofcostorofutility，oroflifeitself，mustapplyasinglestandardofmeasurementtoallthevariousobjectsitseekstovalue，i。e。，itmustreduceallthedifferentobjectstotermsofthiscommondenominator。
Itcanmeasureandvalueallformsofpurchasablegoodsorservices，howevervariousinnature，throughthemarketprocesseswhichreducethemtoasinglemonetaryequivalent。Itcanmeasureandvaluelabour-costsofdifferentsorts，eitherbyamonetarystandardorbysomemeasureoffatigueorvitalexpenditure。Itcanmeasuretheutilityofvarioussortsoffoodoroffuel，bycomparingthequantitiesofworking-poweroroutputwhichuponanaveragetheyyield。Itcanascertainthevitalvaluesofdifferenttownsandoccupations，incomes，races，intermsoflongevity，fertility，susceptibilitytodiseases，etc。
Thismethod，essentialtoscientificanalysis，restsonanassumptionthat£；1worthofbadbooksisofthesamevalueas£；1worthofgoodbooks。Thisassumptionistrueforthepurposetowhichitisapplied，thatofamarketvaluation。Itassumesthatayear\'slifeofanimbecileoraloaferisworththesameasayear\'slifeofasaintoragenius，andsoitisforthepurposeofvitalstatistics。
Thisisofcourseuniversallyadmitted。Scienceproceedsbyabstraction:
itdoesnotpretendtodescribeorexplaintheindividualityorparticularqualitiesofindividualcases，buttodiscovercommonattributesofstructureorcompositionorbehaviouramongnumbersofcases，andtoexplainthemintermsofthesecommoncharacters。
Sofar，then，astheso-calledvalueofanything，oranyhappening，consistsinitsuniquenessoridiosyncrasy，thisvaluenecessarilyevadesscientificanalysis。Itisonlythecommonproperties，theregularities，theconformities，thatcountforscientificvaluation。Nay，more。Sofarassciencetakesaccountofindividualqualities，itisinthecapacityofeccentricities，i。e。，itmeasurestheamountoftheirvariationfromtheaverageornormal。Itcannotentertainthenotionthatthereisanysortofdifferencewhichisinherentlyimmeasurable，i。e。，thatthereisdifferenceinkindaswellasindegree。1
§；4。Ascientificanalysistreatsalldifferencesasdifferencesofdegree。So-calleddifferenceofqualityorkinditeitherignores，oritseekstoreducethemtoandexpressthemindifferencesofquantity。
Thisendeavourtoreducequalitativetoquantitativedifferenceisthegreatstumbling-blockinallorganicscience，butparticularlyinthedepartmentsofpsychologyandsociology。Thedifficultyisbestillustratedintherecentextensionofquantitativeanalysisintoeconomicsbythemethodofmarginalpreferences。Notcontentwiththeassumptionthattheparticularcosts，consumablequalities，etc。，ofanytwoarticlessellingfor£；1
eachmaybedisregarded，andthesinglepropertyoftheirmarketvalueabstractedforconsideration，themathematicaleconomistsnowinsistthatthestudyofmarginalpreferencesdisclosesimportantlawsofthepsychologyofindividualsandsocieties。
Thewholeprocessofexpenditureofincomeappearstoberepletewithinstancesofthecapacityofthehumanmindtomeasureandapplyaquantitativecomparisontothingswhichseemtobedifferentinkind。ItmightseemasifmydesiretohelpthestarvingpopulationofIndiainafamine，andmydesiretoattendaQueen\'sHallconcertthiseveningwerefeelings，notmerelyofdifferentintensity，butofsuchwidelydifferentnaturethattheycouldnotbeaccuratelymeasuredagainsteachother。Andyetthismiracleissaidtobeactuallyperformed，whenIdecideupondueconsiderationtodividethe7s6dinmypursesoastogive5stotheFamineFundandtobuya2s6dticketfortheconcert，insteadofthemoreexpensiveticketIshouldhaveboughthadInotbeenluredtotheFaminemeeting。Imighthavegiventhewhole7s6dtotheFamineFund，andmissedtheconcert。
WhydidInot？Imusthaveperformedtheverydelicatespiritualoperationofreducingmyhumanitarianfeelingtocommontermswithmyloveofmusic，andtohavestruckabalancewhichcanonlymeanthatIconsidertheadditionalsatisfactionIwouldhavegotfromgivinganother2s6dtotheFamineFundtobealittlelessthanthesatisfactionIwouldgetfromtheconcert。
Butthis，ofcourse，isasinglecrudeinstanceofafarmoreelaborateprocessofcomparisonwhichunderliesthewholeexpenditureofmyincome。
Aftertheroutineexpenditureuponnecessariesandcomforts，whichmaybesaidtorepresentmyhabitualstandardofconsumption，hasbeendefrayed，therearevariousattractiveusestowhicheveryothersovereignandshillingmaybeput。Allsortsofdifferentappealsofpleasure，duty，pride，presstheirclaimsthroughathousanddifferentchannels。InordertoapportionmyexpenditureasIdo，Imustbeconceivedasreducingalltheseclaimstosomecommonstandardofdesirability，anddecidinghowmuchtolayoutonthis，howmuchonthat。Thatphysicalsatisfactionscanbecomparedwithoneanother，bytheapplicationofsomestandardofpleasuremayappearintelligibleenough。Butthatasenseofmoraldutycanbebroughtintodirectcomparisonwithaphysicalpleasure，orthatvariousdutiescanbecomparedinsizeorstrengthwithoneanother，wouldseemalmostimpossible。
Yetthisisdoneincessantlyandquickly，ifnoteasily。Evenwhenitisclaimedthatsomedutiesaresoparamountthatagoodmanwillrefuseto\'weigh\'anyotherclaimagainstthem，assigningthemavaluewhich，hesays，is\'infinite，\'themarginaleconomistwillnotadmittheclaimtoexemption。\'Thisonlymeansthattohimthetotaldifferencebetweenthecommandofthingsinthecircleofexchangethathealreadyenjoys，andanindefinite，orunlimitedcommandofthem，doesnotweighasheavyinhismindasthedishonourorthediscomfortofthespecificthingheisrequiredtodo。Itdoesnotmeanthathisobjectionis\"infinite。\"itmerelymeansthatitislargerthanhisestimateofallthesatisfactionthathecouldderivefromunlimitedcommandofarticlesinthecircleofexchange，andthisisastrictly，perhapsnarrowly，limitedquantity。\'2
Butthoughtherearemenwhosehonourissoincorruptibleasalwaysto\'outweigh\'otherconsiderations，theethicsofbriberymakeitclearthataweakersenseofhonourcanbemeasuredagainstmaterialsatisfaction，andthatisallthatseemsnecessarytosupporttheviewthatsuchqualitativedistinctionscan\'bereducedtoquestionsofquantity。\'Norisitmerelyamatterofthemonetaryvaluationthroughexpenditureofincomes。Preciselythesameproblemarisesinthedisposalofone\'stimeorenergy。Howmuchshallbegiventotheperformanceofthisorthatpersonalorfamilyduty，torecreation，ortostudy？Inwhatproportionsshallwecombinetheseactivities？Ifacurtailmentofmoneyoroftimeisnecessary，howmuchshallbetakenfromthis，howmuchfromthatemployment？
Butitisneedlesstomultiplyexamples。Whenanyscientificvaluationistaken，allqualitiesareabstractedandquantitiesonlyarecomparedandestimated。Asineconomics，soinethics。Themoralstruggletoresistatemptationisnearlyalwayssetinscientificpsychologyasamechanicalproblem，forwhentheethicistprofessestointroducesomeimponderable\'freedomofthewill\'hehastothrowoverboardhisscience。A\'conflictofduties，\'asMr。Wicksteedrecognises，impliesthat\'dutyitselfisaquantitativeconception。\'3
§；5。Similarlywiththescientificpoliticianwhoseekstomakefulluseofquantitativeanalysis。Hetooiscompelledtovisualiseandrepresentthepsychologicaloperationthroughwhichapoliticaljudgmentisreachedasamechanicalone，conceivedintermsofsize，weight，strainorintensity。InhisHumanNatureinPoliticsMr。GrahamWallasgivesaveryinterestingexampleofthescientificvaluationofaprocessofpoliticalthinking，viz。，theprocessbywhichMr。Gladstone，intheautumnandwinterof1885-6，mustbeconceivedtohavearrivedathisHomeRulepolicy，\'thinkingincessantlyaboutthematter\'and\'preparingmyselfbystudyandreflection。\'
Afterdescribing，withtheaidofLordMorley\'sLife，thevariousstudiesandcoursesofreflectionemployed，the\'calculations\'ofthestateoffeelinginEnglandandIreland，theexaminationofvarioustypesoffederation，asfoundinpastandcurrenthistory，thestatisticalreportsuponfinance，lawandotherconcreteissues，considerationsofthetimeandopportunity，theplayoftheemotionalvaluations，\'theirresistibleattractionforhimofallthegrandandexternalcommonplacesoflibertyandself-government，\'
Mr。Wallasseestheresultsofallthisacquisitionofknowledgeandreflectiongatheringandbeingcoordinatedintoaprobleminwhichthefactorsarequantitiesandthesolution\'aquantitativesolution，\'\'adelicateadjustmentbetweenmanyvaryingforces。\'4\'AlargepartofthisworkofcomplexcoordinationwasapparentlyinMr。Gladstone\'scaseunconscious，\'anoperationhedeclares，\'ratherofartthanofscience。\'Now，since\'thehistoryofhumanprogressconsistsinthegradualandpartialsubstitutionofscienceforart，\'itisdesirabletobringoutwithclearerconsciousness，andfortifywithgreateraccuracyofknowledge，theprocessesofpoliticalthinking。\'Quantitativemethodmustspreadinpoliticsandmusttransformthevocabularyandtheassociationsofthatmentalworldintowhichtheyoungpoliticianenters。
Fortunately，suchachangeseemsatleasttobebeginning。Everyyearlargerandmoreexactcollectionsofdetachedpoliticalfactsarebeingaccumulated；
andcollectionsofdetachedfacts，iftheyaretobeusedatallinpoliticalreasoning，mustbeusedquantitatively。\'5Sincetheproblemsofpoliticalconductarethusessentiallyquantitative，theycan，intheoryatanyrate，be\'solved\'byscience。\'ThefinaldecisionswhichwillbetakeneitherbytheCommons——orbyParliamentinquestionsofadministrativepolicyandelectoralmachinerymustthereforeinvolvethebalancingofalltheseandmanymoreconsiderationsbyanessentiallyquantitativeprocess。\'6
§；6。Nowhowfarisittruethatanypoliticalproblemisessentiallyquantitativeandsolublebyaquantitativeprocess？itisofcoursetobeadmittedatoncethatthescienceofstatisticswillfeedastatesman\'smindwithavarietyoforderedandmeasuredfacts。Butwillthismind，workingeitherscientificallyorartistically，consciouslyorsubconsciously，gothroughadistinctivelymechanicalprocessofbalancingandmeasuringandregisteraquantitativejudgment？Ascientificsettingoftheprocessmustindeedsopresentit。But，then，ascientificsettingofanyprocesswhatsoeversetsitthusinpurelyquantitativeform。Therealissueishowfarthisscientificsettingiscompetenttointerpretandexplainthefacts，andtodeliverajudgmentwhichshallbeauthoritativefortheconductofanindividualorasociety。
Inordertotestthescientificclaimletustakewhatseemstobeaverydifferentsortofactionfromthatofthepoliticianorthebusinessman，thatoftheartist。Followthemindofthepainterasheplieshisart。Eachofhisoperationstooinvolvesconsiderationsofquantityandmeasurement，scopeandfocus，adjustment，coordination，balance，theapplicationofdefiniteblendsofcolours:optics，anatomy，andothersciencesfeedhismindwithexactknowledge。Adelicateadjustmentofquantitiesinlineandcolourisinvolvedineverypartofhisartisticoperations。Butdoestheoperationconsistofthesequantitativearrangementsandcanitbeunderstoodor\'appreciated\'byanalysingthem？Evidentlynot。Whynot？
Becauseinsuchananalysisorexplanationtheessentiallyqualitativeorcreativeactionoftheartist，whichgivesunityandartisticvaluetothewholeoperation，escapesnotice。Sciencekillsinordertodissect。
Sointhecaseofeveryotherart。Apoeminvolvescertainorderedarrangementsofsoundwhichmaybeexpressedinquantitativetermsofrhythmandprosody。
Butanyattemptto\'resolve\'itintotheseformslosesitsspirit，itsunity，itsvalueasapoem。StudentsofthedramahavesometimesexplainedorinterpretedatragedyofSophoclesorShakespeareintermsofthegradationofintensityofthevariousemotionsinvolved，thelengthofpausesofsuspense，thebalancing，reliefandinterlacingoftheplotsorepisodes，therelativestrengthorheightoftheclimaxesandsubclimaxes，thegrowingrapidityofmovementtowardsthecatastrophe。Butcanitbepretendedthatthis\'mechanics\'ofthedramacanfurnishastandardofappreciation，orsupplylawsaccordingtowhicha\'good\'dramamaybeconstructedorappreciated？
No。Anartisticoperationisessentiallyorganic，creativeandqualitative。
Noneofthesecharacterscanreallybereducedtoquantity。Sciencebyquantitativeanalysiscanonlydealwiththeskeletonnotwiththelifethatinformsit。
Ithinkthiseternalinabilityofscienceadequatelytointerpretvalue，orexplainaworkofart，willbegenerallyadmitted。Itisduetothefactthatthisworkanditsvalueareinherentlyincapableofbeingreducedtoquantities。Thedifferencebetweenonepictureandanother，onepoemandanotherisadifferenceofquality。Itisofcoursetruethatbyamerelylinguisticnecessityweoftenspeakofapictureasbeing\'much\'
finerthananother，andcomparethe\'greatness\'ofonepoetwiththatofanother。Butweareawareallthetimethatwearereallycomparingunlikes，dealingwithqualitativedifferences。Onnoothersuppositionindeedcanweunderstandthevaluationsetuponaworkofgeniusascomparedwithoneoftalent。
\"Ohthelittlemore，howmuchitis，Andthelittlelesswhatworldsaway。\"
Whatthendoeconomistsmeanwhentheyinsistthatqualitativedifferences，thedesiresandsatisfactionswhichhavesuchwidelydiverseoriginsandnatures，canbeweighedandmeasuredagainstoneanother，andthatproblemsofindustryareessentiallyandultimatelyquantitative？Ourexaminationofartisticactivitieshasshownthatineachcasequantitiesareinvolved，butthatinnocasedoquantitiesconstitutetheproblemofaction。Buthow，itmaybesaid，doyoudisposeoftheadmittedfactsthatbymeansofmonetaryvaluationsthesediversedesiresandsatisfactionsarereducedtoacommonstandard，arecompared，andthatacourseofconductisapparentlybaseduponthesequantitativeconsiderations？
Theansweristhatthisisanentirelyillusoryaccountofthepsychicalprocessbywhichamanlaysouthismoney，orhistime，orhisenergy。
Hedoesnottaketheseveralusestowhichhemightapplythemeansathisdisposal，reducethem，inthoughtorinfeeling，tosomecommonterm，andsomeasuretheamounthewillexpenduponeachobjectthatthe\'marginal\'
or\'final\'portionofeachuseshallbeexactlyequalintheutilityityields。The\'marginalist\'7iscorrectinsayingthattheutilityimputedtothelastsovereignIexpendonbreadduringtheyearmustbeconsideredtobeneithergreaternorlessthanthatimputedtothelastsovereign\'sworthoftobacco，orbooks，holidayorcharitablesubscriptions。InpreciselythesamesenseitistruethatthelastbrushfulofgreenandbrownandTurkeyredexpendedonapicturehasthesameart-valuetothepainter。
Perhapstheissuecanbemadeclearerbyreferencetoanartusuallyconsideredless\'fine\'andmorecloselyaffectedbyquantitativeconsiderationsthanpainting，theculinaryart。Thecompositionofadishishereexpressedinproportionsofitsvariousingredients，somuchflour，somanyouncesofraisins，somanyeggs，somuchsugar，etc。Themarginalistwoulddwelluponthecrucialfactthatthelastpennyworthoftheflour，raisins，eggsandsugar，takenseverally，hadanequalvalueforthepudding，andthatthesemarginalorfinalincrementswereinsomewaycausaldeterminantsofthecompositionofthepudding，becauseinusingtheingredientsthecooktookcaretousejustsomuchofeach，andneithermorenorless。
Anditisquitetruethatthedelicacyoftheculinaryartwillinfactbedisplayedindecidingwhethertoputinanotherhandfulofraisins，anotheregg，oraspoonfulmoresugar。But，fromthestandpointoftryingtoappreciatethevirtueorworthofthedishasaculinarycreation，itcannotbeadmittedthatanyspecialimportanceorcausaldeterminationattachestothelastincrementsoftheseveralingredients。Foritisevidentthatthe\'howmuch\'andthereforethe\'margin\'ofeachingredientisitselfdeterminedbytheconceptionofthetoutensembleinthemindofthecreatororinventor。
Andthisevidentlyappliestoeveryformofcompositionembodyingsomeunityofdesignorpurpose，whetherthetreatmentofasubjectinpictorialordramaticart，themakingofanewdish，theconstructionofamachine，thearrangementofabusiness，orthelayingoutofagardenorafortune。
Sofarasaneconomicaluseismadeofmaterialsormeansofanykindfortheattainmentofanyendthismarginalequivalenceisimplied。Thescientificanalysisofanycompositearrangement，mechanical，organic，conscious，involvesthismarginalassumption。Itisanaxiomofall\'economy\'whatsoever。
Butitexplainsnothing。Nay，indealingwithanyorganicbeingonanyplaneofaction，itdarkenscounsel。Itdoessoinseveralways。Firstbyassumingorassertingthatthehumanmindcananddoesgetridofqualitativedifferencesbyreferringthemtoaquantitativestandard:secondly，byassumingorassertingthatorganicunitycanbebrokenupintoitsconstituentpartsandexplainedintermsofthesemeasuredparts；thirdly，byassumingorassertingauniformityofnaturewhichconflictswiththe\'novelties\'
inwhichcreativeenergyexpressesitself。Allthesefallaciesarejustasmuchinvolvedintheattempttoexplaintheexpenditureofanincomeasapurelyquantitativeproblem，asintheattempttoexplaintheart-valueofapictureintermsoftherespectivequantitiesoflineandcolour。
Ineachcasetherootfallacyisthesame，theillicitsubstitutionoftheabstract\'quantity\'fortheactualstuff，whichisalwaysqualitativeandisneveridenticalinanytwocases，oratanytwotimes。
§；7。Inlayingoutmyincome，Idonotinfactcompareallmyseveralneedsortastes，andhavingassignedsomuchutilityordesirabilitytoeach，planmyexpendituresoastospendoneachjustasmuchasitisworth，equalisingallexpenditureatthemarginssoastomaximisetheaggregate。EvenBenjaminFranklinorSamuelSmileswouldnotreallydothis，thoughtheymightthinktheydid，andperhapsdrawupschedulestoenforcethenotion。SofarasIactlikeafree，rationalbeing，notacreatureofblindcustomorroutine，Iemployallmypersonalresourcesofknowledge，taste，affection，energy，time，andcommandofmaterialresources，intryingtorealisemyidealofagoodordesirablelife。Intheexecutionofthisdesign，howeveritberegarded，self-realisationorcareer，Iutilisemyvariousresourcesinamannerstrictlyanalogoustothatinwhichtheartistemploysthematerialsandinstrumentsofhisart。UponthecanvasoftimeIpaintmyself，usingallthemeansatmydisposaltorealisemyideal。Amongthesemeansismymoneyincome。Itsexpendituregoesintotheexecutionofmydesign。SofarasIamjustifiedinseparatingmyexpenditureofmoneyfromtheexpenditureofmytimeandotherresources，andinregardingthedesignasan\'economicpicture，\'Icanreadilyperceivethattheunityofmyartisticpurposeinvolvesanddeterminestheexpenditureofmyincomeindefiniteproportionsuponthevariousobjectswhose\'consumption\'contributestothedesign。Buttheseproportionsarenotdeterminedbyacalculationoftheseparatevaluesofthevariousitems。For，strictlyspeaking，theyhavenoseparatevalue，anymorethanhavethelinesorcoloursinapicture。
Onlybyconsiderationofwhatwemaytermindifferentlytheartisticororganicpurposeofthewholecanatrueappreciationorvaluationbeattained。
Thefullabsurdityofsuggestingthatanythingislearned，eitherinthewayofvaluationorofguidance，bythequantitativeanalysis，orthewonderfuldiscoveryofequivalenceofvalueatthemargins，willnowbeapparent。
Thismathematicalanalysiscandonomoretowardsexplainingtheexpenditureofincomethanexplainingtheexpenditureofpaint。Ofcourse，theexpenditureatthemarginsappearstoproduceanequalutility:thattruthisobviouslycontainedintheverylogicofthequantitativeanalysis。Butthatquantitativeanalysis，necessarilyignoring，asitdoes，thequalitativecharacterwhichtheorganicunityofthewholeconfersuponitsparts，failstoperformthepsychologicalinterpretationclaimedforit。
Sofarasitistruethatthelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbreadequalsinutilitythelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbooks，thatfactproceedsnotfromacomparison，consciousorunconscious，oftheseseparateitemsatthismargin，butfromthepartsassignedrespectivelytobreadandbooksintheorganicplanofmylife。Quantitativeanalysis，inherentlyincapableofcomprehendingqualitativeunityorqualitativedifferences，canonlypretendtoreducethelattertoquantitativedifferences。Whatitactuallydoesistoignorealiketheunityofthewholeandthequalitativenessoftheparts。
Noristhisall。Itisnoteventruethatanapplicationofquantitativeanalysisdoesfindexactequivalenceofvaluesatthemargins。Takingaconcreteinstance，itisnottruethatthelastsovereignofmyexpenditureinbooksequals，oreventendsexactlytoequal，inutility，thatofmylastsovereign\'sexpenditureonbread。Thiswouldbethecaseifthefuturetendedpreciselytorepeatthepast。Inthateventmyexperienceoftheeconomyoflastyear\'sexpenditurewouldprogressivelycorrectanyerrors，andIshouldcometoemploymyresourceswithgreatereconomyorexactitudetotheattainmentofthesamedesign。ButIamnotthesamethisyearaslast，myenvironmentisnotthesame，myresourcesarenotthesame，andtheplanoflifeImakewillnotbethesame。ThisawkwardfactorofNovelty，involvedinorganicnature，belongstoeverycreativeart，beingindeedoftheveryessencealikeofartandofcreation，andimpairstoanincalculableextentthequantitativecalculusanditsmarginalinterpretation。Anadditionof£；100tomyincomethisyearcannotbelaidoutbycalculationsoastoincreaseeachsortofexpendituretoanextentwhichwillsecuremarginalequivalenceofutility。Thatistosay，Icannottellwhatwillbethebestemploymentofmylargerincome，untilIhavetried。Thelargerincomewillproducenowhereastrictlyproportionateincreaseofexpenditureonanumberofseveralobjects。Itwouldshiftmyeconomicplanoflife，makinganewkindoflife，andinvolvingallsortsofchangesintheitems，whichfollowasconsequencesfromthechangedorganicplan。ThisnewplanIcannotaccuratelycalculateorforecast。ItwillworkitselfoutasI
proceed。Itsexecutioninvolvesnodoubtelementsofforethoughtandevencalculation，butthecentralandessentialchangewillproceedfromsomenoveltyofconception，somequalitativechangeofpurpose。Inaword，itisthecreativepowerofman，theartist，inspiration，faithandthatiseveratwork，andtheartfacultiesofadventurewillleadhimtoexperimentanewwithhisresources。Asamangainsmoreintelligence，undergoessomenewcriticalexperienceofhisouterorhisinnerlife，encounterssomenewpersonalinfluence，hisentiremodeoflivingwillchange，andinnumerablealterationsintheoutlayofhisincomewilltakeplace。Somearticlesofearlierexpenditurewilldisappear，newarticleswilltaketheirplace，andtherespectiveimportanceofmanyarticlesremainingintheexpenditurewillbeshifted。Achangeofresidencefromcountrytotown，a\'conversion，\'
religiousordietetic，atransferfromanoutdoormanualtoanindoorsedentaryemployment，marriage，oranyothercriticalevent，mustbringaboutsomesuchlargecomplexorganicalteration。Acomparisonoftheitemsofexpenditurebeforeandafterwillshedinterestinglightupontheresultsofthepsycho-economicchangeofwhichtheyaffordaquantitativeregister，butitcannotberegardedasanexplanationofthechangeofheartorofoutlookwhichisthedeterminantactfromwhichtheseshiftsofvaluesflow。
§；8。Thelifeofasocietypresentsthissameproblemonalargerscale。Ontheplaneofeconomicconductwhichdirectlyconcernsus，everyoneoftheinnumerableandincessantalterationsinmethodsofproductionandconsumptionranksasanorganicnovelty，and，insofarasitisnovel，necessarilybafflesquantitativeanalysisandscientificprediction。Itwould，ofcourse，beincorrect，eitherinthecaseofanindividualorofasociety，torepresentanychangeasentirelynovel。Organicgrowthitselfislargelyaquantitativeconception:thechangesareproportionateinsizetoformerchanges，andareindefinitequantitativerelationstooneanother。Thedoctrineofcontinuitythusenablesustogofarincalculatingthecharacteroffuturechanges。Sofarthescientificinterpretationofuniformityofnaturecarriesus。Butquantitativegrowth，oranyothersetofquantitativechanges，howevercalculable，alwayscarriessomequalitativeandessentiallyincalculableelementsofchange。Thesearewhatwesignifybynovelty。Itistheiroccurrenceinevolutionthatbafflesthecleanlogicofthegeologist，stillmoreofthebiologist，andfarmoreofthepsychologist。Whethertheyshowthemselvesas\'faults\'or\'sports\'or\'mutations，\'
theyrepresentthedisabilityofpastexperiencetofurnish\'laws\'fortheircalculation，andthepracticalimportancewhichattachestotheseincalculableorqualitativechangesisveryconsiderable。Thoughtheymaybecomparativelyinfrequentandmayappearonfirstinspectionalmostnegligiblebreaksintheotherwisecalculablecontinuityoftheevolutionaryprocess，theirdeterminantimportanceisreceivingevergreaterrecognition。Inhumanconduct，individualorsocial，thesemutationsseemtoplayalargerpart，chieflybyreasonoftheoperationoftheso-called\'freedom\'ofthehumanwill。Forwhateverphilosophicviewbeheldregardingthedeterminationoftheactsofthewill，itsoperationscattersmutationsthicklyovertherealmofhumanconduct。Henceitremainstruethatsciencecandosomuchlessinexplainingandpredictinghumanhistorythaninanyotherdepartmentofnature。Nodoubthere，aselsewhere，sciencehopestoapplyquantitativeanalysisofsuchincreasingaccuracyastoenableittodetermineandpredictalargernumberofsuchmutations。Sincetheredoubtlessexistquantitativeconditionsforeveryqualitativechange，itmayseemtheoreticallypossibleforsciencesomedaytocatchupwith\'theartofcreation。\'Thissupposition，however，assumesthatthenumberofpermutationsandcombinationsin\'nature\'islimited，andthat，therefore，insomeextensiverunhistorydoesrepeatitself。Thefinalvictoryofsciencethusseemstodependupontheadoptionofacyclicalviewofthehistoryoftheuniverse。But，forallpresentpracticalpurposesofsocialprocesses，scienceissofarremovedfromthisperfectionthattheeconomistandthesociologistarecontinuallycompelledtoallowforunpredictablechangesofsuchfrequencyandofsuchdeterminantimportancethattheirclaimtodirect\'thegeneralwill\'andtomouldtheconsciouspolicyofasocietymustbeverymodestlyexpressed。
Suchlawsofcausationastheyderivefrompastobservationandexperimentmustusuallybeconceivedaslawsoftendencies，seldomendowedwithanyrigorousauthorityofclosedetermination，andstillmoreseldomwithaccuracyofquantitativeprediction。
§；9。Itissometimessupposedthatthishamperingeffectoftheuniqueness，irregularity，noveltyandfreedomoftheindividualandsocialorganismscanbegotridofbyaprocessofmultiplicationinwhichparticulareccentricitieswillcancel。Toeconomists，inparticular，thereisastrongtemptationtofallbackupontheaverageman，inthebeliefthatscientificdeterminismjustifiesitselfthroughaverages。Nowtheradicaldefectofmeasurementbyaverages，asamodeofsocialvaluation，hasalreadybeendisclosed。Theascertainedfactthattheaveragemoneyincome，oreventheaveragerealincome，oftheBritishpeoplemayhaverisen10%withinthelastdecade，disablesitself，bytheveryprocessofaveraging，frominformingusastotheeffectofthisincreaseofnationalwealthuponnationalwelfare。Forthiseffectdependsuponthedistributionoftheincrease，andtheprocessofaveragingconsistsinignoringthisvitalfactofdistribution。
Thisdefectofaveragesforpurposesofinterpretation，ofcourse，involvesaconsequentdefectforpurposesofguidanceineconomicconduct。
Thecalculationthatagivencourseofnationalconduct，e。g。，theexpenditureofsomanymillionsuponimprovedtransport，willraisethenationaloraverageincomebysomuch，losesalltheworthofitssuperficialexactitudeunlessweknowhowmuchoftheincreaseisgoingtothelandlordinrisingrent，howmuchtothelabourerinrisingwages。
This，ofcourse，involvesnorepudiationofthetrueutilityofaverages，butonlyofthespuriousaccuracywhichtheirformssuggest。TheexactstatementthattheaverageincomeofanEnglishfamilyhasrisen10%inthelastdecadedoesimplyareasonableprobabilitythatanincreaseoftotalnationalwelfarehastakenplace。8Butitgivesnoinformationastotheamountofthatincrease，andisconsistentwiththefactthattheremayhavebeenadecrease，owingtoaworseningofthedistributionofthegrowingincome，orofthelabourandothercostsinvolvedinitsproduction。
§；10。Sofaruponthesuppositionthatwelfareisaquantity。Itwilloccurtostatisticiansthattheinformationtobegotfromaveragesofincomemaybejustifiedbynicerdiscrimination。If，inadditiontolearningthattheaverageincomeofallfamilieshasrisen10%，wediscoveredthedifferentpercentageswhichhadbeenaddedtorent，interest，profitsandwages，or，betterstill，theratioofincreaseforthedifferentincomelevels，weshouldsurelythen，bythisextendeduseofaverages，getnearertowardsaquantitativeestimateoftheincreaseofwelfarethathadbeenachieved!
Thismustcertainlybeadmitted。Bythenicerandmorecomplexapplicationofthesemeasures，weshouldapproachamoreaccurateaccountofwelfare，sofarasitisultimatelyexpressibleintermsofquantity。Ifwediscoveredthataproposedcourseofnationalpolicywouldnotonlyincreasetheaverageincomeby10%butwouldincreasethelowerincomesofthepopulationinahigherratio，weshouldseemtohavegotascientificwarrantforthepolicy。Buteventhisdegreeofscientificauthoritywouldbepurchasedtosomeextentbyanartificialsimplificationoftheactualproblemofsocial-economy。Tothestatesmannoproblemofactualfinanceiscapableofbeingsetinsuchdistinctivelyquantitativeterms。NotmerelycannotanearthlyChancelloroftheExchequerknowhowmuchcanbeaddedtotheincomesoftheseveralclassesbytheexpenditureofsomanymillionsupontransport，oruponanyothersingleservice，but，ifhecould，hewouldnotbemuchnearertothestandardherequires。Therearemanydifferentwaysofraisingtherevenueinquestionandaninfinitenumberofcombinationsoftheseways。Thesameholdsofexpenditure。Totakethesimplestcase；
thetenmillionsthatheraisesmaybeappliedtotransport，ortoeducation，ortodefence，allthesumoranyproportion，toeach。Eachexpenditureclaimstobebeneficial，anoutlayforpublicwelfare。Butthebenefitintheseveraloutlaysisnotequallypresentableintermsofmoneyincome，and，sofarasdefinitelyeconomicgainsaccrue，theyarenotequallyimmediateorequallyassured。Itisevidentthatnoamountofpossessionofstatisticalknowledgecanpossiblyreducetheproblementirely，orevenmainly，tooneofquantitativecalculation。Itisequallytruethatwhentheproblemissolved，itssolutionwillappearinquantitativeshape，i。e。，somuchmoneyfortransport，somuchforeducation，somuchfordefence。Itwillseemtohavebeenworkedoutbyreducingthethreeformsofdesiredbenefitstocommonterms，andthendividingthetenmillionsamongthemsoastosecureanequivalenceofgainsatthemargins。Economistswillpointouttriumphantlytheallegedfactthatthelast£；100spentoneducationproducesanationalreturnofwelfareexactlyequaltothatobtainedbythelast£；100spentongunboats，thoughhisassertionremainsinherentlyinsusceptibleofproof。Intruth，theChancellor\'sminddoesnotworkinthisway。Sofarashisstatecraftisdisinterested，orevenallowingforeveryformofbias，hismindformsanidealofsocialprogress，ofahappierorbetterstateofthings，andallotstheoutlayofhistenmillionsinanendeavourtoassistinrealisingthisideal。Nowtheidealitselfisnotchieflyaproductofquantitativecalculus，butofhismoreorlessinformedimagination，andhismoreorlesswholesomesympathies。Hisviewsastothemeansofrealisingthisidealcanneverbepurelyscientific，thoughsciencemayherebeofconsiderableassistance。
If，treatingexpendituremorewidelyasanactofpublicpolicy，weconsideritasanoperationofthegeneralwillofthecommunity，atrueactofpoliticaleconomy，theproblemremainsessentiallythesame。Whenlookedatthroughscientificspectacles，itisapurelyquantitativeandmechanicallyorderedact，becausethescientificmethodbyitsverymodusoperandiignoresthequalitativefactors。Sothenationissupposedtobalancethisgainagainstanother，andtolayoutitsrevenuesoastogetthelargestaggregateofsomecommonhomogeneousstuffcalled\'welfare\'，insuchawaythatthelast£；100spentoneducationisequivalentinitsyieldofthis\'welfare\'tothelast£；100spentonthelatestsuper-dreadnaught，orthelastlotofold-agepensions。Intruth，thecommonwillnomorefunctionsinthisfashionthanthepersonalwilloftheChancellor。