IftheConstitution，asoriginallyproposed，hadcontainedadirectprovisionthatthepresidentandvicepresidentshouldbechosenbyamajorityofthetwohousesofcongress，itisnotprobablethatthispartofitwouldhavebeenadopted。
Thatthechiefexecutivemagistrateshouldbethecreatureofthelegislature；
thatbeshouldviewinthemthesourcefromwhichhesprung，andbywhichhewastobecontinued，wouldatoncedestroythedignityandindependenceofhisstation，andrenderhimnolongerwhattheConstitutionintended，animpartialandinflexibleadministratorofthepublicinterests。Tothepeoplealonehewouldnolongerconsiderhimselfresponsible，buthewouldbeledtorespect，andwouldbefearfultooffend，apowerhigherthanthepeople。
SuchprinciplescannotbefoundintheConstitution；anditiswhollyinconsistentwithitsspiritanditsessence，toeffectuateindirectly，thatwhichdirectlyisnotavowedorintended。TheseinstancesfullyprovethatthesafetyofthepeoplegreatlydependsonacloseadherencetotheletterandspiritoftheirexcellentConstitution；butitisprobablethatalatefailurewillpreventarenewalofthelastmentionedattempt。Andinreferencetotheelectionof1828，ithasnotbeenrenewed，but，withastrictadherencetotheformsprescribed，thevoiceofagreatmajorityofthepeoplehasdecidedthechoice。
Beforeweclosethesubject，itispropertoaddthat，inonerespect，thecautionoftheConstitutioncannotbeviolated?nosenatororrepresentativeorpersonholdinganofficeoftrustorprofitundertheUnitedStatescanbeanelector，andthereforethevoteofeverysuchpersonwouldbevoid。
1。Therearenow1829buttwostates，viz。DelawareandSouthCarolinaintheelectorsareappointedbythelegislature。
2。Fed。No。8。
WilliamRawle:AViewoftheConstitution:ChapterVICHAPTERVI。OFTHEMANNEROFEXERCISINGTHELEGISLATIVEPOWER。THEtwohousespossessco-equalpowersinregardtooriginatinglaws，exceptthoseforraisingrevenue。
whichoriginateonlyinthehouseofrepresentatives，butthesenatemayproposeorconcurwithamendmentsasinotherbills。Somedoubtshaveexistedastothepolicy，oratleastthenecessityofthisexception。Itisintroduced，however，intomostofthestateconstitutions，andmaybefoundedontheutilityofkeepingthisfrequentsubjectoflegislationinaregularsystem，inorderthatpubliccreditmaynotbeimpairedbythesuggestionofdiscordantplans，orneedlessinnovations。Inadditiontowhich，itwasprobablysupposedthatthemembersofthehouseofrepresentatives，comingmorefrequentlyfromthebodyofthepeople，andfromtheirnumberscombiningagreatervarietyofcharacterandemployment，wouldbebetterqualifiedtojudgenotonlyofthenecessity，butalsoofthemethodsofraisingrevenue。
Onallothersubjects，abillmayoriginateineitherhouse，andafterhavingbeenfullyconsidered，itissenttotheother。Ifamendmentsareproposed，thebillissentbackforconcurrence。Ifthetwohousesdisagree，eithertothebill，asoriginallytrained，orasamended，aconferenceusuallytakesplace，andifneitherhousewillrecede，thebillislost。
Itisnotusualtobringforwardanotherbillonthesamesubjectduringthesamesession，butitmaybedone，asitisamerematterofparliamentaryregulation，andnotprohibitedbytheConstitution。
Whenabillhaspassedbothhouses，itispresentedtothepresident，andhisshareofthelegislativedutycommences，butitiswiselyandprudentlyguarded。Ifhepossessedtherightofimposinganabsolutenegative，itwouldvestinhimtoogreatapower。Ifhesentbackthebill，withorwithoutitsreasonsforrefusinghisassent，andthesamenumbersthatoriginallypassedit，werestillsufficienttogiveittheeffectofalaw，thereferencetohimwouldbeanemptyform。Itisthereforemostjudiciouslyprovided，thatnotonlyeverybillwhichhaspassedbothhouses，buteveryorder，resolution，orvote，onwhichtheconcurrenceofbothisnecessary，exceptonquestionsofadjournment，may，ifnotapprovedbyhim，bereturnedwithhisobjectionstothehouseinwhichitoriginated。
Theseobjectionsaretobeenteredatlargeontheirjournal，andthehouseisthentoproceedtoreconsiderthebillorresolution；ifaftersuchreconsideration，two-thirdsofthathouseshallagreetopassthebillorresolution，itshallbesent，togetherwiththeobjections，totheotherhouse，bywhichitshalllikewisebereconsidered，andifapprovedbytwo-thirdsofthathousealso，thebillbecomesalaw，andtheresolutionbecomesabsolute。Butinallsuchcases，thevotesofbothhousesshallbedeterminedbyyeasandnays，andenteredonthejournals。Whilethisgreatshareofthelegislativepowerisgiventothepresident，itwouldbeimpropertoleaveittohimindefinitelytoexerciseit，withoutsomecontrolinpointoftime，andthereforeitisprovidedthatifsuchbillorresolution，arenotreturnedbyhimwithintendays，Sundaysexcepted，theresolutionshalltakeeffect，orthebillshallbecomealaw，unlesscongressbytheiradjournmentpreventit；aconsiderationwhichoughttoinducethetwohouses，wheneveritifpossible，topreparemattersofimportanceineithershape，fortheconsiderationofthepresident，atleasttendaysbeforethetimeoftheiradjournment，otherwise，andparticularlywhenthedurationofthesessionislimited，measuresofhighinterestmaybefrustratedforaseason。
WemightheredrawacomparisonmuchtoouradvantagebetweenoursystemandthoseoftheEuropeanmonarchies，wheretheabsolutenegativeofthekingdependssolelyonhisownwillandpleasure，orontheotherhand，withthoseancientrepublicsinwhichthechiefexecutivemagistratesdidnotinthesmallestdegreeparticipateinthelegislativepower。Ourschemejudiciouslysteersamiddlecourse。Lawsdonotoriginatewiththepresident，althoughitishisdutytorecommendsubjectsforconsiderationwhenthepublicgoodrequiresit；butaslawsmaybeunadvisedlyandtooprecipitatelypassedevenbyadoublelegislature，itmaybeoftensalutarytocallthemtoareconsiderationoftheirmeasures，andbyrequiringtheobjectionstobeenteredonthejournal，andtheyeasandnaystoberecorded，thepeople，whoaretheultimatejudges，areenabledtodecideonthesoundnessofconductonthepartofall。Theremedytakesplaceatthenextelection。
WilliamRawle:AViewoftheConstitution:ChapterVIICHAPTERVII。OFTHETREATYMAKINGPOWER。WEwillnowproceedtoconsiderthelegislativepowersvestedinthesebodies。
Treatiesbeing，nexttotheConstitution，thesupremelawoftheland，properlyfallintothisclass。Theyarelaws，inmakingwhichthehouseofrepresentativeshasnooriginalshare；whethertheirsubsequentconcurrenceinanyshapeisnecessarywillhereafterbeexamined。
ThelanguageoftheConstitutionis，thathe[thepresident，]shallhavepowerbyandwiththeadviceandconsentofthesenatetomaketreaties，providedtwo-thirdsofthesenatorspresentconcur。
This，atfirstview，wouldimplythatatreaty，likeanactofcongress，shouldinitsprogressbethesubjectofjointdeliberation，butthepracticehasnecessarilybeenotherwise。
Treaties，ifmadeabroad，areeffectedthroughthemediumofourministerstoforeigncourtsunderinstructionsfromthepresident。Ifmadehere，thebusinessistransactedbythesecretaryofstate，underlikeinstructions，withtheministersfromforeigncourts。Thesenateisnotconsultedinthefirstprocess:whenthetreatyisagreedon，thepresidentsubmitsittothesenate，inwhosedeliberationshetakesnopart，butherenderstothem，fromtimetotime，suchinformationrelativetoitastheymayrequire。Thesenatemaywhollyrejectit，ortheymayratifyitinpart，orrecommendadditionalorexplanatoryarticles，which，ifthepresidentapprovesofthem，againbecomethesubjectofnegotiationbetweenhimandtheforeignpower；andfinally，whenthewholereceivestheconsentofthesenate，andtheratificationsareexchangedbetweentherespectivegovernments，thetreatybecomesobligatoryonbothnations。
Theproceedingsofthesenateduringthisprocessarewithcloseddoors，andthecontentsofthetreatyandtheinformationconnectedwithitoughtingoodpolicytobekeptsecret。ButtheConstitutiondoesnotinexpresstermsrequireit，and，inoneparticularinstance，whenthepublicmindwasgreatlyagitated，disclosures，notonlyofthecontentsofthetreatyitself，butofsomeoftheproceedingsofthesenateinregardtoittookplace，theproprietyofdoingwhichwasadmittedordeniedaccordingtotheopposingopinionsoftheday。1
Thenatureandextentofthisconstitutionalpowerunderwentfullexaminations2inthestateconventions。ThemostgeneraltermsareusedintheConstitution。Thepowersofcongressinrespecttomakinglawsweshallfindarelaidunderseveralrestrictions。Therearenoneinrespecttotreaties。Althoughtheactsofpublicministers，lessimmediatelydelegatedbythepeoplethanthehouseofrepresentatives；
thepresidentconstitutionallyandthesenatebothconstitutionallyandpractically，tworemovesfromthepeople，arebythetreatymakingpower，investedwiththehighandsolecontroloverallthosesubjectswhichproperlyarisefromintercoursewithforeignnations，andmayeventuallyaffectimportantinterestsathome。TodefinethemintheConstitutionwouldhavebeenimpossible，andthereforeageneraltermcouldalonebemadeuseof，whichis，however，tobescrupulouslyconfinedtoitslegitimateinterpretation。
Whateveriswantinginanauthorityexpressed，mustbesoughtforinprinciple，andtoascertainwhethertheexecutionofthetreatymakingpowercanbesupported，wemustcarefullyapplytoittheprinciplesoftheConstitutionfromwhichalonethepowerproceeds。
Initsgeneralsense，wecanbeatnolosstounderstandthemeaningofthewordtreaty。Itisacompactenteredintowithaforeignpower，anditextendstoallthosematterswhicharegenerallythesubjectsofcompactbetweenindependentnations。Suchsubjectsarepeace，alliance，commerce，neutrality，andothersofasimilarnature。Tomaketreatiesisanessentialattributeofanation。Onewhichdisableditselffromthepowerofmaking，andthecapacityofobservingandenforcingthemwhenmade，wouldexcludeitselffromtheinternationalequalitywhichitsowninterestsrequireittopreserve，andthusinmanyrespectscommitaninjuryonitself。Inmoderntimesandamongcivilizednations，wehavenoinstancesofsuchabsurdity。Thepowermustthenresidesomewhere。Underthearticlesofconfederationitwasgivenwithsomerestrictions，proceedingfromthenatureofthatimperfectcompact，tocongress，whichthennominallyexercisedboththelegislativeandexecutivepowersofgeneralgovernment。InourpresentConstitutionnolimitationswereheldnecessary。Theonlyquestionwaswheretodepositit。Nowthismustbeeitherincongressgenerally，inthetwohousesexclusiveofthepresident，inthepresidentconjunctlywiththemoroneofthem，orinthepresidentalone。
Theformationofatreatyoftenrequiressecrecyanddispatch，neitherofwhichcouldbefoundinthefirstorsecondmode，andacontraryplanwouldbeinconsistentwiththeusagesofmostnations。Itremainedtheneithertovestitinthepresidentsingly，ortouniteoneoftheotherbodieswithhim。Thelatterwasobviouslypreferable，andallthatremainedwastoselectthatonewhoseconformationappearedmostcongenialtothetask。Thesenateisasmallerbody，andthereforewheneverceleritywasnecessary，themostlikelyto，promoteit?itwasapermanentbody；itsmembers，electedforalongertime，weremostlikelytobeconversantinthegreatpoliticalinterestswhichwouldbeagitated，andperhapsitwassupposed，thatasrepresentativesinonepointofview，ratherofthestatesthanofthepeople，afederativequalityappertainedtothemnotwhollyunconnectedwiththenatureofaforeigncompact。
Fromtheseandotherconsiderations，thepowerwasvestedwherewefindit；andwheneverobjectionsareraisedagainsttheextensiveoperationsofatreaty，onaccountofthesourcefromwhichitsprings，wemustrememberthatitwasthewillofthewholebodyofthepeopletoplaceitthere。
Thelegaleffectofatreatyconstitutionallymadeis，thatnexttotheConstitutionitself，itprevailsoverallstatelaws，stateconstitutions，andactsofcongress。
Thisisexpressedinthefollowingwords?
ThisConstitutionandthelawsoftheUnitedStateswhichshallbemadeinpursuancethereof，andalltreatiesmadeorwhichshallbemadeundertheauthorityoftheUnitedStates，shallbethesupremelawoftheland，andthejudgesineverystateshallbeboundthereby，anythingintheConstitutionorlawsofanystatetothecontrarynotwithstanding。
Thereisavarianceinthewordsdescriptiveoflawsandthoseoftreaties?intheformeritissaidthosewhichshallbemadeinpursuanceoftheConstitution，buttreatiesaredescribedashavingbeenmade，orwhichshallbemadeundertheauthorityoftheUnitedStates。
Theexplanationis，thatatthetimeofadoptingtheConstitution，certaintreatiesexisted，whichhadbeenmadebycongressundertheconfederation，3thecontinuingobligationsofwhichitwaspropertodeclare。Thewords\"undertheauthorityoftheUnitedStates，\"wereconsideredasextendingequallytothosepreviouslymade，andtothosewhichshouldsubsequentlybeeffected。ButalthoughtheformercouldnotbeconsideredasmadepursuanttoaConstitutionwhichwasnottheninexistence，thelatterwouldnotbe\"undertheauthorityoftheUnitedStates，\"unlesstheyareconformabletoitsConstitution。
Ithasbeenobserved，thatitisnotdistinctlydeclaredwhethertreatiesaretobeheldsuperiortoactsofcongress，orwhetherthelatteraretobeco-equalwithorsuperiortotheformer。Themerecollocationofthewordswouldtendtogivethesuperioritytothelaws，buthighergroundmustbetakenforthedecisionofthequestion。
Havingfeltthenecessityofthetreatymakingpower，andhavingfixedonthedepartmentinwitchitshallbevested，thepeopleofcourseexcludedfromallinterferencewithit，thosepartsofthegovernmentwhicharenotdescribedaspartakingofit。TherepresentationheldoutbyourConstitutiontoforeignpowers，was，thatthepresidentwiththeadviceandconsentofthesenate，couldbindthenationinalllegitimatecompacts:butifpre-existentacts，contrarytothetreaty，couldonlyberemovedbyCongress，thisrepresentationwouldbefallacious；itwouldbeajustsubjectofreproach，andwoulddestroyallfutureconfidenceinourpublicstipulations。
Theimmediateoperationofthetreatymustthereforebetooverruleallexistinglegislativeactsinconsistentwithitsprovisions。
Butthisisnotinconsistentwithapowertopasssubsequentlaws，qualifying，altering，orevenwhollyannullingatreaty。Suchapowermaybesupportedonanotherground。Congressalonepossessestherighttodeclarewar；andtherighttoqualify，alter，orannulatreatybeingofatendencytoproducewarisanincidenttotherightofdeclaringwar。Suchmeasuresmaybeessentialtotheinterestsofthenation，anditisimpossibletofindtheminanyotherpartoftheConstitutionthaninthegeneralpowersheldbyCongress。Butintheseprocedures，thesenatemustnecessarily，andthepresidentmayeventuallybeparties，andtheyareessentiallydifferentfromlawstocarryatreatyintoeffect，whichsupposethetreatyimperfect，tilltheyarepassed。Theformerlawsonthecontrary，considerthetreatyascompleteandeffective，andarepassedastheonlymeansofcounteractingitunderachangeofcircumstances，atthehazardindeedofexcitingthecomplaints，resentment，orhostilitiesoftheforeignpower。
Intheyears1795and1796，thehouseofrepresentativeswasmuchagitatedonaccountofthetreatyofNovember19th，1794，betweentheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain。Aresolutionwaspassedrequestingthepresidenttolaybeforethemacopyofhisinstructionstotheministerwhonegotiatedthetreaty，withthecorrespondenceandotherdocumentsrelativetothattreaty，exceptingsuchpapersasanyexistingnegotiationsmayrenderitimpropertodisclose。
Theillustriousindividualwhothenheldtheoffice，answered，thathehadneverhadbutoneopiniononthesubject，andthathisconducthadalwaysconformedtoit。Hisopinionwas，thatthepowerofmakingtreatiesisexclusivelyvestedinthepresident，byandwiththeadviceandconsentofthesenate，providedtwo-thirdsofthesenatorspresentconcur，andthatanytreatysomadeandpromulgated。thenceforwardbecomesthelawoftheland。
Itisthus，headded，thatthetreatymakingpowerhasbeenunderstoodbyforeignnations；andinallthetreatiesmadewiththem，wehavedeclared，andtheyhavebelieved，that，whenratifiedbythepresident，withtheadviceandconsentofthesenate，theybecomeobligatory。InthisconstructionoftheConstitutioneveryhouseofrepresentativeshadacquiesced，anduntilthepresenttime，notadoubtorsuspicionhadappeared，tohisknowledge，thatthisconstructionwasnotthetrueone。
Withsomefurtherremarks，beconcludedbyobserving，thatasitwasperfectlycleartohisunderstandingthattheconsentofthehouseofrepresentativesisnotnecessarytothevalidityofatreaty，asthetreatywithGreatBritainexhibitedinitselfalltheobjectsrequiringlegislativeprovision，andonthesethepaperscalledforcouldthrownolight；andasitisessentialtothedueadministrationofagovernment，thattheboundariesfixedbytheConstitutionbetweenthedifferentdepartmentsshouldbepreserved，ajustregardtotheConstitutionandtothedutiesofhisofficeforbadeacompliancewiththeirrequest。4
Theprinciplesthuslaiddownweresofaracquiescedinbythehouse，thattheypassedaresolutiondisclaimingapowertointerfereinmakingtreaties，butassertingtherightofthehouseofrepresentatives，wheneverstipulationsaremadeonsubjectscommittedbytheConstitutiontocongress，todeliberateontheexpediencyofcarryingthemintoeffect。Andsubsequently，thoughnotwithoutmuchacrimoniousdebate，andbyasmallmajority，itwasdeclaredtobeexpedienttopassthelawsnecessarytocarrythetreatyintoeffect。
Fromthattime，thequestionremainedundisturbed，untilthesessionof1815-16，wheninrelationtoanothertreatywithGreatBritain，thehouseofrepresentatives，aftermuchdebate，passedabillparticularlyenactingthesamestipulationsononesubjectasthosewhichwerecontainedinthetreaty。This，asadangerousinnovationonthetreatymakingpower，waswarmlyopposedbytheminority，anddisagreedtobythesenate。Butafterconferencesbetweenthetwohouses，itterminatedinasortofcompromise，whichitisdifficulttoreconcilewithasoundconstructionoftheConstitution。
Theact，whichwaspassedonthe1stofMarch，1816，shortlydeclares，thatsomuchofanyactasimposesadutyontonnage，contrarytotheprovisionsofaconventionbetweentheUnitedStatesandhisBritannicMajesty，shallfromandafterthedateofthatinstrument，andduringitscontinuance，beofnoforceoreffect。
Thusaprecedentwasset，whichadissatisfiedhouseofrepresentativesmayhereafterresortto；andalthoughthejudicialtribunalswouldprobablyconsiderthelawasbeingwhollyunnecessary，andanullityinitself，itmaybethecauseoffuturelegislativeattemptsproducingmoredifficulty。
Yethowevermanifesttheseprinciplesmayappear，itmustbeconfessedthatanotherpartoftheConstitutionpresentsanapparentdifficultywhichrequiresexamination。
Bythe9thsect。ofthe1starticle，itisexpresslydeclared，thatnomoneyshallbedrawnfromthetreasurybutinconsequenceofappropriationsmadebylaw。
Atreatymaybemade，bywhichasumofmoneyisengagedtobepaidtoaforeignpower，onconsiderationsbeneficialtotheUnion；cansuchacontractbefulfilledwithoutanactofcongress?Threeeventualcasesmaybestated:Wherethereisasufficientsumofmoneyinthetreasury，notunderanyspecificappropriation。Wherethereisasufficientsum，butactuallyappropriatedtodifferentobjects。Wherethereisnomoneyinthetreasury，butasufficientsummustberaisedinsomemannertofulfilthecontract。Inthesecondandthirdofthesesupposedcases，itwouldseemthatthetreatycouldnotbecarriedintoeffectbyitsownpower。Taxation，directorindirect，canonlybetheworkofcongress。
ByArt。1。§；viii。thecongressshallhavepowertolayandcollecttaxes，duties，imposts，andexcises。
Nosuchpowerisgiventothepresidentandsenateindirectterms。
Byanothersection，the7th，ofthesamearticle，Allbillsforraisingrevenueshalloriginateinthehouseofrepresentatives。A
nicedisquisitionmightherebeintroduced，whetherthefulfilmentofacontractwithaforeignpower，wastobeconsideredasraisingrevenue。
Thetermoughttobeinterpretedinitsbroadandgeneralsense，andinreferencetothespiritandmeaningofthewholeConstitution。Byrevenuewemustunderstandwhateverisproducedbytaxes，duties，imposts，andexcises，forpublicuse。Themoneyssoraisedmaybeappliedtodefraytheexpensesofgovernment，topaytheprincipalorinterestofthepublicdebt，tomaintainanarmyandnavy，topayforacquisitionsofterritory，asintherecentinstanceofthepurchaseofFloridafromSpain，whenbytreatyweassumedthepaymentofthemoneytowhichourowncitizenswerejustlyentitled，byreasonoftheinjuriesinflictedonthembythatcountry，topreservepeaceandharmonywithforeignpowers，asthebarbarousstatesofAfrica，andavarietyofothercases。Itisstillrevenue，andcongressalonecanraiseit。andthebillcanonlyoriginateinthehouseofrepresentatives。If，therefore，anewtaxmustbelaid，oraspecificappropriationalreadymadebycongresssuperseded，itseemsobviousthatitcannotbedonebythepresidentandsenate。
Thefirstofthethreecasessupposedwillseldomhappen，butshoulditevertakeplace，andasum，whichbytreatytheUnitedStateswereboundtopaytoaforeignpower，couldbedischargedoutofmoneyslyinginthetreasury，unfetteredbyappropriation，thedifficultywouldnotyetbesubdued。Ifthesurplusinthetreasuryarosefromatax，laidwithaviewtothefulfilmentoftreatieswhichwerethereaftertobeconcluded，greatdoubtsmightbeentertainedwhethersuchalawwouldbeconstitutional。
Toextractmoneyfromthepeopleforapurposesoindefinite，andtoplacethosemoneysatthedisposalofthetreatymakingpower，mightpossiblybesupportedbytheauthoritygiventocongresstoprovideforthecommondefenceandgeneralwelfare。Buteventhis，asitwouldamounttoaconcurrenceofcongressineffectuatingthetreaty，wouldleavethequestionunresolved。
Theoriginaldifficultyremains，ifthemoneysthusfoundinthetreasury，consistedofasurplusunappropriatedbycongressinanymanner，ortoanyobjectwhatever。Nowwemustkeepinview，thatatreatywithaforeignpower，isnotofitselfanappropriationofmoneysinthetreasuryoftheUnitedStates，anymorethanitwouldbeanappropriationofmoneysinthetreasuryoftheforeignpower。Itisevidentlynotanappropriationinaconstitutionalsense，foritcanonlybemadesofarasrelatestoothersubjectsastheactofbothhouses，andinthesolemnformofalaw。Howeverstrong，therefore，theobligationofgoodfaithmaybeonthenationtofulfilthetreaty，itdoesnotseemthatithasinvestedinthepresidentandsenateafulleffectuatingpower。Andifthepresidentalone，orconjunctlywiththesenate，weretodrawonthetreasuryforthesumnecessarytofulfilit，suchdraughtwouldnotappeartobewithinthedirectionoftheConstitution。5
Onthewhole，theconclusionseemstobe，thatinthissingleinstance，thepaymentofmoney，theconcurrenceofthehouseofrepresentativesisnecessarytogiveeffecttothetreaty。Butanengagementtopayasumofmoneywouldnotbe，liketheengagementtocedeapartoftheterritoryoftheUnitedStates，unconstitutionalandvoid。Whenitshouldreceivethesanctionofcongress，andthemeansareprovided，thetreatymaybeeffected。Itisreservedforcongressalone\"todisposeoftheterritoryoftheUnitedStates，\"ifbythisgeneralexpressionwearetounderstandthealienationofanypartoftheterritory，whichweshallhereafterconsider。
Inanothershapethesamequestionwasagitatedintheyear1798。Partiesatthattimeranhigh；thehouseofrepresentativeswasmuchdivided。Itwasconceivedoralleged，thattheexpensesincurredbythemultitudeofourforeignministers，weregreaterthannecessary。Thepracticealwayshadbeen，andstillcontinues，tomakeanannualappropriationofagrosssumfortheexpensesofforeignintercourse，withoutfurtherinterferencethantolimitthecompensationtoministersofdifferentgrades，butleavingitimplicitlytothepresident，withtheconcurrenceofthesenate，tosendministerstosuchcourtsasthey，whowerebestacquaintedwiththesubject，shoulddeemexpedient。Aneffortwasmadetoconfinethehigherrateofcompensationtotheministersofthreespecifiedcourts，andtoallowalltheothersonlyhalfthesameamount。Itwaswarmlycontendedthatcongress，byhavingtheexclusivepowertoraiseandappropriate，wasauthorizedtograntonlysomuchmoneyastheyshouldthinknecessary。
Happilyfortheinterestsandcharacterofourcountry，theeffortfailed，anditishopedwillneverberenewed。
TherecanbenodoubtofthespiritandtrueintentoftheConstitution，inrespecttoallpecuniarysuppliesrequiredtosupporttheexerciseofthetreatymakingpower。Itisincumbentoncongresstofurnishthosesupplies。
TheConstitutionhasvestedexclusivelyinthepresidentandsenatethedutyofforeignintercourse。Theinterferenceofcongressinanyshapeisnotwarrantedfurtherthantoaffordthemeansofcarryingonthatintercoursetotheextentwhichthepresidentandsenateholdtoberequisiteforthenationalinterest，andoffurnishingthemeansofeffectuatingtreatiesconstitutionallymade，when，ashasbeenseen，theirinterventionisabsolutelynecessary。Itistruethatthereisnoexpressdirectiontothiseffect，neitheristhereastomanyotherapplicationsofthepublicrevenue。Butwhereverthereisadutypointedoutingeneralterms，andadequatepowersgiventoanydepartmentofgovernmentforperformingit，commonsenseindicatesthecoursetobepursued，andthosewhoarethusauthorized，mustbeconsideredasboundtoperformtheduty。Ifitberefused，thegeneraloperationsofgovernmentwillbeaffectedwithgreaterorlessinjuryaccordingtocircumstances；andtheremediescanonlybesubsequentlyandperhapstardilyapplied。Theseremediesmustbeaconstitutionalchangeofthepublicagents。
ButthisisnotpeculiartotheAmericanConstitution。Shortofactualviolence，itneveriseffectedbutbythemild，yetfirm，exhibitionofthesovereignpower，if，aswithus，itstillremainsinthepeople，bythesubstitutionofothersforthosewhoseconducthasoccasionedadiminutionofpublicconfidence。
Theeffectofatreatyonstateconstitutionsandstatelawscannotbequestioned。Withoutconsideringwhetheritoperatesdirectlyasarepealofthem，wearewarrantedinsayingthatanactdoneunderastatelaw，inoppositiontoatreaty，cannotbesetupasalegalbartoaproceedingfoundedonatreaty。
TheinabilityoftheConfederationtoenforcethetreatiesmadebythemwasseverelyfelt。Manystatelawswhichhadbeenpassed，during，orshortlyafterthewaroftherevolution，wereinconsistentwithsomeofthearticlesofthetreatyofpeacewithGreatBritain，andthatpower，complainingofinjuriessustainedinconsequencethereof，postponedthefulfilmentofthetreatyinsomepointsontheirpart。Theinadequacyofthepowersofcongresstoenforceitwerethensensiblyfelt，andaseriousdeclarationthatatreaty，invirtueoftheconfederation，waspartofthelawofthelandandobligatoryontheseverallegislatures，wastransmittedtoallthestates，withanurgentrecommendationthatthestatesthemselveswouldrepealallthoseactsandpartsofactsthatwererepugnanttothetreaty。6Inthisrespectthewantofajudicialpowerwasstronglyperceived。
AftertheadoptionoftheConstitution，itsretrospectiveeffectupontheopposinglawsofastate，passedevenbeforethetreaty，wasspeedilyandfullyestablishedbytheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates。7
Asalaw，thepresidentenforcesatreatybyhisexecutivepowerwhennecessary。ThistookplaceinseveralinstancesduringthewarbetweenFranceandGreatBritain，afterthepresident，inalegitimateexecutionofthedutiesofhishighoffice，hadissuedaproclamationofneutrality。
Someofthebelligerentcapturesandotheracts，sofarastheyoccasionallyinterferedwiththeobligationsofourtreatieswitheithernation，wereratifiedbyhisinterventions。8
Thewisdom，impartiality，andfirmnessmanifestedonthepartofourgovernment，duringthewholeofthatdifficultperiod，entitledittothehighestapplause，andtherecouldbenobetterproofofitsmerits，thanthedissatisfactionalternatelyexpressedbyeachofthegreatcontendingpowers。Itisalsoduetotheexecutivesoftheseveralstatestodeclarethatalthoughtherewereatthetimestrongpopularimpressionsinfavourofone，andtotheprejudiceoftheothernation，allconsiderationsofthatkindweresuppressedinapromptandefficientcompliancewiththedirectionsemanatingfromthepresident。Anaccurateandcomprehensivecollectionoftheactsofourgovernmentduringthewholeofthatwarwouldbeanusefuladditiontothestockofpublicinformation，andwouldaffordprecedentswhichnoforeigncabinetcouldjustlydisdaintofollow。
1。RelativetotheBritishtreatyof1794。
2。SeeparticularlythedebatesoftheVirginiaconvention。
3。WithFrance，theUnitedNetherlands，andparticularlythetreatyofpeacewithGreatBritain。
4。Message，Match30，1796，andseeMarshall\'sLifeofWashington，vol5。
5。WhenlandsarepurchasedoftheIndiantribesthroughtreatiesmadewiththem，themoneyisalwayspaidunderappropriationsbyactsofcongress。
6。Seethejournalofcongress，March21，andApril13，1787。TheletterfromcongresspreparedbyMr。Jay，thensecretaryforforeignaffairs，isadmirableinstyleandreasoning。SeetheAppendix。
7。Calderv。Bull，3dDallas，386，andBrailsfordv。Meade，ib。1。TheSupremeCourtofPennsylvania，inthecaseofGordon，affirmedthesameprinciples1Dall。
233。
8。SeeSergeantonConstitutionalLaw，p。216。397。
WilliamRawle:AViewoftheConstitution:ChapterVIIICHAPTERVIII。OFLAWSENACTEDBYCONGRESS。LAWSenactedbycongressformthethirdruleofobligation。
Thepoweroflegislationvestedincongress，isconformabletothehighobjectsofitsformation，someofwhichareexpresslyenumerated，andsomeincludedintheextensiveauthoritytoprovideforthecommondefenceandgeneralwelfare；butthisbroaddeclarationhasbeenconsideredbysomeasrestrainedbyanamendmentwhichhassincebecomeapartoftheConstitutiontothefollowingeffect:ThepowersnotdelegatedtotheUnitedStatesbytheConstitution，norprohibitedbyittothestates，arereservedtothestatesrespectivelyortothepeople。
Thequestionisnotcompletelysettledbythisarticle。\"Thenatureofaconstitutionrequiresthatonlyitsgreatoutlinesshouldbemarked，itsimportantobjectsdesignated，andtheminoringredients，whichcomposethoseobjects，bededucedfromthenatureoftheobjectsthemselves。Ifitcontainedanaccuratedetailofallthesubdivisionsofwhichitsgreatpowerswilladmit，andofallthemeansbywhichtheymaybecarriedintoexecution，itwouldpartakeoftheprolixityofalegalcode，andrathertendtoembarrassthantoelucidate。Whetheranyparticularpowerisdelegatedtothegeneralgovernmentorprohibitedtothestates，mustdependonafairconstructionofthewholeinstrument。\"1Theamendmentdoesnotspeakofpowersexpresslydelegated，andisinfacttobe，consideredratherinthelightofacautiousandspecialreservationofwhatisnotgranted，conceivedintermsasgeneralasthegrantitselfbutwhateverisalreadygranted，eithergenerallyorbyexpresswords，isnotintendedtobeabridged，andtherefore，ineffect，thisclausehasnooperationonthegrantitself。
Inavarietyofinstances，thelegislativepowerisnotlefttodependongeneralinferences。Expressenumerationremovesthedifficultyastothesubject，anditisonlyinrespecttowhatmaybetermedtheexcessofpracticallegislation，beyondthesubjectexpressed，thatanydoubtcanarise。
Thestyleandcompositionofstatutesinmoderntimes，havefrequentlybeencomplainedof；ithasbeenobservedthattheysometimesobscurethesensebyamultiplicityofwordsintendedtoproducetheoppositeeffect，andthebrevityandsimplicityofancienttimeshavebeenheldupasexamplestobefollowed。Butperhapsthepeculiarcharacterofourgovernmentmayjustifymoreminutenessinitslegislativeacts，thaninthoseofagovernmentnotundersimilarlimitations。Althoughverboseness，productiveofperplexity，shouldbescrupulouslyavoided，yettheenactmentsofalawframedunderalimitedauthority，shouldclearlyappeartobeconfinedtothatauthority，andaslittleaspossiblebeleftforgeneralconstruction。Theactshithertopassedbycongresshavenotoftencreateddoubtsastotheirtruemeaning。
1。SeeMcCullochv。Maryland，4Wh。316。Andersonv。Dunn，6Wh。225。
WilliamRawle:AViewoftheConstitution:ChapterIXCHAPTERIX。OFTHEENUMERATEDPOWERSOFCONGRESS。THEenumeratedpowers，whichwenowproceedtoconsider，willbeallfoundtorelateto，andbeconsistentwith，themainprinciple；thecommondefenceandgeneralwelfare。
Thefirstistolayandcollecttaxes，duties，imposts，andexcises。
ThethreelattermustbeuniformthroughouttheUnitedStates；butthereisnodescriptionofthesubjectstobetaxednoranylimitationoftheamounttoberaised。
Thenecessityofvestingthispowerintheunion，seemstobetooobvioustorequiremuchargument。Nogovernmentcanbesupportedwithoutthemeansofraisinganadequaterevenue。Itmustpossessthispowerinitself，andmustnotbedependentonothersfortheirconcurrence。Wehaveseeninourownhistorytheinefficientconditiontowhichwewerereduced，whenthenecessaryincomeforthemostimportantnationalobjects，couldonlybeobtainedbyrequisitionsoftheseveralstates。
Oftheamountnecessarytoberaised，thegovernmentitselfcanbetheonlyjudge。Ingovernmentsunderasinglehead，whenaseparatepursemaybekept，inwhichthepeoplehavenoshare，restrictions，ifpracticable，maybeuseful。Here，wheretheonlytreasuryisthatofthepeople，wherecompensationstopublicofficersarescrupulouslyfixed，andasevereaccountabilityisapermanentprinciple，nosuchlimitationsarenecessary。Andifthemoneyshouldbefaithlesslyinterceptedinitswaytothetreasury，orfraudulentlywithdrawnfromitafterwards，thedefaulterisalwaysliabletolegalcoercion。
Itwasnotthoughtnecessarytodefinewhatshallbetheexclusivesubjectsoftaxation，althoughinsomeinstancesapartoftherevenueofastatemaybeinterferedwith，bytheexerciseofthepower；foritisbetterthataparticularstateshouldsustainaninconveniencethanthatthegeneralwantsshouldfailofsupply。Itwasmanifestlyintendedthatcongressshouldpossessfullpowerovereveryspeciesoftaxableproperty，exceptexports。
Thetermtaxesisgenetical，andwasmadeuseoftoconferaplenaryauthorityinallcasesoftaxation。Thegeneraldivisionoftaxesisintodirectandindirect；thelattertermisnottobefoundintheConstitution，buttheformernecessarilyimpliesit。Indirectisopposedtodirect。Theremaypossiblybeanindirecttaxonaparticulararticlethatcannotbecomprehendedwithinthedescriptionofduties，imposts，orexcises，butifsuchcasecanarise，itwillbecomprehendedwithinthegeneraldenominationoftaxes。Thetermtaxincludes，1st。directtaxes，whichareproperlycapitationtaxesandtaxesonland，althoughdirecttaxesmayperhapsbelaidonotherthingsthatgenerallypervadeallthestatesintheunion。
2dly。duties，imposts，andexcises。And3dly。allotherclassesofanindirectkind。Indirecttaxesaffect
expenseorconsumption，thosewhoreducetheirconsumptionofanarticlesotaxed，reducetheamountoftheirtax。1Adirecttaxisindependentofconsumptionorexpense，andistobeapportionedamongtheseveralstates，accordingtotheirrespectivenumbers，whichistobedeterminedbythesamerulethat，asalreadyobserved，isappliedtorepresentation。Indirecttaxesdonotadmitofthisapportionment，buttheyaretobeuniformthroughouttheUnitedStatesonthesubjecttaxed。
Thus，ifCongressthinkpropertoraiseasumofmoneybydirecttaxation，thequotaofeachstateistobefixedaccordingtoitscensus。Ifindirecttaxationispreferred，thesamedutymustbeimposedonthearticlewhetheritsquantityorconsumptionisgreaterorlessintherespectivestates。
Whetherdirectorindirecttaxationismostconsistentwiththegeniusandinterestsofourrepublic，hasbeenmuchdiscussed，butitisaquestionnowoflittlemomenttous，sinceaConstitutionauthorizingbothhasbeenformed。
ThenextenumeratedpoweristhatofborrowingmoneyonthecreditoftheUnitedStates。
WhenthisConstitutionwasformed，theUnitedStateswereconsiderablyindebtedtoforeignnations，fortheexpensesofthewar，anditsowncitizenshadheavyclaims，aswellontheUnionasonindividualstates，forservicesandsuppliesduringthesameeventfulperiod。Tocombineandconsolidatethesedebts，todischargesomeandsecuretherest，wasnecessaryforthepublicfaithandinterestbothabroadandathome。Buttoavailitselfofthepoweroftaxation，inordertoaccomplishsuchextensiveobjectsatonce，wouldhavebeeninjurioustothecommunity。Itwasforeseenthatmanypubliccreditors，whetherdistantordomestic，wouldbesatisfiedwiththeassumptionorrecognitionoftheprincipalandthepaymentoftheinterest。Bythetermsthusintroduced，congressreceivedpowertomakethenecessaryprovisionsforsuchobjects。Incaseoffutureexigencies，theexpensesofwarorthefailureofpartoftheusualrevenue；asimilarmeanofcontinuingtheoperationsandthecharacterofgovernmentisalsothusprovided。
Toregulatecommercewithforeignnations，amongtheseveralstates，andwiththeIndiantribes，isthethirdpower。This，fromitsnature，mustbeconsideredasexclusive。Ifeachstateretainedapowertoregulateitsowncommercewithforeigncountries，eachwouldprobablypursueadifferentsystem。Heavydutiesortotalprohibitionsinrespecttosomearticles，irregularandchangeablecodesofcommerce，mutualrivalries，andotherobviousinconvenienceswouldnaturallyensue。Acommonheadcanalonecuretheseevils。Acommonheadcanaloneformcommercialtreatieswithforeignpowers，fortonootherwouldaforeignpowergivesufficientcredence。
Inlikemannerthecommercebetweenthedifferentstatesisthepropersubjectofageneralregulation。
Inthetermcommerceareincludednotmerelytheactofbuyingandsellingorexchangingmerchandise，butalsothenavigationofvessels，andcommercialintercourseinallitsbranches:itextendstovessels，bywhateverforcetheyarepropelledorgoverned，whetherwind，orsteam，oroars；towhateverpurposestheyareapplied，whetherthecarryingofgoodsorofpassengers，orproceedinginballastonly。Ageneral，unconfinedpowertoregulateasubject，isinitsnatureexclusiveoftheactionofothersonthesamesubject。
TheseprinciplesaresofullyandclearlyexplainedbyChiefJusticeMarshallinarecentcase，2thatweshallmakenoapologyforinsertingalargeextractfromhisopinion。\"Commerce，asthewordisusedintheConstitution，isaunit，everypartofwhichisindicatedbytheterm。
\"Ifthisbetheadmittedmeaningoftheword，initsapplicationtoforeignnations，itmustcarrythesamemeaningthroughoutthesentence，andremainaunit，unlesstherebesomeplain，intelligiblecausewhichaltersit。
\"Thesubjecttowhichthepowerisnextappliedistocommerce\'amongtheseveralstates。\'Commerceamongthestatescannotstopattheexternalboundarylineofeachstate，butmaybeintroducedintotheinterior。
\"Thesewordsdonot，however，comprehendthatcommercewhichiscompletelyinternal，whichiscarriedonbetweenmanandmaninastate，orbetweendifferentpartsofthesamestate，andwhichdoesnotextendto，oraffectotherstates。
\"Comprehensiveastheword\'among\'is，itmayveryproperlyberestrictedtothatcommercewhichconcernsmorestatesthanone。Thephrasewouldprobablynothavebeenselectedtoindicatethecompletelyinteriortrafficofastate，becauseitisnotanaptphraseforthatpurpose；andtheenumerationoftheparticularclassesofcommercetowhichthepowerwastobeextended，wouldnothavebeenmadehadtheintentionbeentoextendthepowertoeverydescription。Theenumerationpresupposessomethingnotenumerated；
andthatsomething，ifweregardthelanguageorthesubjectofthesentence，mustbetheexclusivelyinternalcommerceofastate。Thegeniusandcharacterofthewholegovernmentseemtobe，thatitsactionistobeappliedtoalltheexternalcommercialconcernsofthenation，andtothoseinternalconcernswhichaffectthestatesgenerally；butnottothosewhicharecompletelywithinaparticularstate，whichdonotaffectotherstates，andwithwhichitisnotnecessarytointerfereforthepurposeofexecutingsomeofthegeneralpowersofthegovernment。Thecompletelyinternalcommerceofastatemaybeconsideredasreservedforthestateitself。
\"Butinregulatingcommercewithforeignnationsthepowerofcongressdoesnotstopatthejurisdictionallinesoftheseveralstates。Itwouldbeaveryuselesspowerifitdid。ThecommerceoftheUnitedStateswithforeignnationsisthatofthewholeUnitedStates。Everydistricthasarighttoparticipateinit。Ifcongresshasthepowertoregulateit，thatpowermustbeexercisedwhereverthesubjectexists。Ifitexistswithinthestates，ifaforeignvoyagemaycommenceorterminateataportwithinastate，thenthepowerofcongressmaybeexercisedwithinastate。
\"Thisprincipleis，ifpossible，stillmoreclearwhenappliedtocommerce\'amongtheseveralstates。\'Theyeitherjoineachother，inwhichcasetheyareseparatedbyamathematicalline；ortheyareremotefromeachother，inwhichcaseotherstatesliebetweenthem。Whatiscommerce\'among\'
them，andhowisittobeconducted?Canatradingexpeditionbetweentwoadjoiningstatescommenceandterminateoutsideofeach?Andifthetradingintercoursebebetweentwostatesremotefromeachother，mustitnotcommenceinone，terminateintheother，andprobablypassthroughathird?Commerceamongthestatesmust，ofnecessity，becommercewithinthestates。IntheregulationoftradewiththeIndiantribes，theactionofthelaw，especiallywhentheConstitutionwasmade，waschieflywithinastate。
Thepowerofcongress，then，maybeexercisedwithintheterritorialjurisdictionoftheseveralstates。\"InrespecttocommercewiththeIndiantribes，wearetoadoptthesamebroadinterpretation；butitisapplicableonlytoindependenttribes。
Itisimmaterialwhethersuchtribescontinueseatedwithintheboundariesofastate，inhabitpartofaterritory，orroamatlargeoverlandstowhichtheUnitedStateshavenoclaim；thetradewiththemisinallitsforms，subjectexclusivelytotheregulationofcongress，andinthisparticularalsowetracethewisdomoftheConstitution。TheIndians，notdistractedbythediscordantregulationsofdifferentstates，aretaughttotrustonegreatbody，whosejusticetheyrespect，andwhosepowertheyfear。
Thepowertoestablishanuniformsystemofnaturalizationisalsoanexclusiveone。
Inthesecondsectionofthefourtharticleitisprovidedthatthecitizensofeachstate，shallbeentitledtoallprivilegesandimmunitiesofcitizensintheseveralstates，andthesamerulehadbeenambiguouslylaiddowninthearticlesofconfederation。Ifthisclauseisretained，anditsutilityandproprietycannotbequestioned，theconsequencewouldbe，thatifeachstateretainedthepowerofnaturalization，itmightimposeonalltheotherstates，suchcitizensasitmightthinkproper。Inonestate，residenceforashorttime，withaslightdeclarationofallegiance，aswasthecaseundertheformerconstitutionofPennsylvania，mightconfertherightsofcitizenship:inanother，qualificationsofgreaterimportancenightberequired:analien，desirousofeludingthelatter，mightbycomplyingwiththerequisitesoftheformer，becomeacitizenofastateinoppositiontoitsownregulations，andthusinfact，thelawsofonestatebecomeparamounttothatofanother。Theevilcouldnotbebetterremediedthanbyvestingtheexclusivepowerincongress。
Itcannotescapenotice，thatnodefinitionofthenatureandrightsofcitizensappearsintheConstitution。Thedescriptivetermisused，withaplainindicationthatitsmeaningisunderstoodbyall，andthisindeedisthegeneralcharacterofthewholeinstrument。Exceptinoneinstance，itgivesnodefinitions，butitactsinallitsparts，onqualifiesandrelationssupposedtobealreadyknown。Thusitdeclares，thatnoperson，exceptanaturalborncitizen，oracitizenoftheUnitedStatesatthetimeoftheadoptionofthisConstitution，shallbeeligibletotheofficeofpresident?thatnopersonshallbeasenatorwhoshallnothavebeennineyearsacitizenoftheUnitedStates，norarepresentativewhohasnotbeensuchacitizensevenyears，anditwillthereforebenotinconsistentwiththescopeandtendencyofthepresentessay，toentershortlyintothenatureofcitizenship。
Inarepublicthesovereigntyresidesessentially，andentirelyinthepeople。Thoseonlywhocomposethepeople，andpartakeofthissovereigntyarecitizens，theyalonecanelect，andarecapableofbeingelectedtopublicoffices，andofcoursetheyalonecanexerciseauthoritywithinthecommunity:theypossessanunqualifiedrighttotheenjoymentofpropertyandpersonalimmunity，theyareboundtoadheretoitinpeace，todefenditinwar，andtopostponetheinterestsofallothercountriestotheaffectionwhichtheyoughttobearfortheirown。
ThecitizensofeachstateconstitutedthecitizensoftheUnitedStateswhentheConstitutionwasadopted。Therightswhichappertainedtothemascitizensofthoserespectivecommonwealths，accompaniedthemintheformationofthegreat，compoundcommonwealthwhichensued。Theybecamecitizensofthelatter，withoutceasingtobecitizensoftheformer，andhewhowassubsequentlybornacitizenofastate，becameatthemomentofhisbirthacitizenoftheUnitedStates。ThereforeeverypersonbornwithintheUnitedStates，itsterritoriesordistricts，whethertheparentsarecitizensoraliens，isanaturalborncitizeninthesenseoftheConstitution，andentitledtoalltherightsandprivilegesappertainingtothatcapacity。
Itisanerrortosuppose，assomeandevensogreatamindasLocke
havedone，thatachildisbornacitizenofnocountryandsubjectofnogovernment，andthatbesocontinuestilltheageofdiscretion，whenheisatlibertytoputhimselfunderwhatgovernmenthepleases。Howfartheadultpossessesthispowerwillhereafterbeconsidered，butsurelyitwouldbeunjustbothtothestateandtotheinfant，towithholdthequalityofthecitizenuntilthoseyearsofdiscretionwereattained。UnderourConstitutionthequestionissettledbyitsexpresslanguage，andwhenweareinformedthat，exceptingthosewhowerecitizens，howeverthecapacitywasacquired，atthetimetheConstitutionwasadopted，nopersoniseligibletotheofficeofpresidentunlessheisanaturalborncitizen，theprinciplethattheplaceofbirthcreatestherelativequalityisestablishedastous。
Themodebywhichanalienmaybecomeacitizen，hasaspecificappellationwhichreferstothesameprinciple。Itisdescriptiveoftheoperationoflawasanalogoustobirth，andthealien，receivedintothecommunitybynaturalization，enjoysallthebenefitswhichbirthhasconferredontheotherclass。
Untiltheserightsareattained，thealienresidentisundersomedisadvantageswhicharenotexactlythesamethroughouttheUnion。TheUnitedStatesdonotintermeddlewiththelocalregulationsofthestatesinthoserespects。
Thusanalienmaybeadmittedtoholdlandsinsomestates，andbeincapableofdoingsoinothers。Ontheotherhand，therearecertainincidentstothecharacterofacitizenoftheUnitedStates，withwhichtheseparatestatescannotinterfere。Thenature，extent，anddurationoftheallegianceduetotheUnitedStates，therighttothegeneralprotectionandtocommercialbenefitsathomeandabroad，derivedeitherfromtreatiesorfromtheactsofcongress，arebeyondthecontrolofthestates，norcantheyincreaseordiminishthedisadvantagestowhichaliensmay，bysuchmeasuresonthepartofthegeneralgovernment，besubjected。
ThusifwarshouldbreakoutbetweentheUnitedStatesandthecountryofwhichthealienresidentamongusisacitizenorsubject，hebecomesongeneralprinciplesanalienenemy，andisliabletobesentoutofthecountryatthepleasureofthegeneralgovernment，orlaidunderreasonablerestraintswithinit，andin。theserespectsnostatecaninterferetoprotecthim。
Thedurationofthequalityofcitizen，bothinthenativeandinhimwhoisnaturalized，isasubjectofconsiderableinterest。
ThedoctrineofindefeasibleallegiancehasadeeperrootinEnglandthaninanyothercountryinEurope:thetermisindeedalmostpeculiartotheEnglishlaw，andindiscussingtheextenttowhichtheycarryit，weshallfinditusefultoascendtothesourceoftheirgovernment，andthefoundationonwhichthisdoctrineisplaced。
Whateverrepugnancemayoccasionallybefeltattheavowal，thepresentgovernmentofEnglandmustbeconsideredasfoundedonconquest，andperhapsitisjustlyobservedbysomeoftheirhistorians，thatinscarcelyanyinstancehasconquestbyforeignarmsbeenpushedtoagreaterextentthanwiththem。
Thereluctancewithwhichabraveandgenerousnationsubmittedtotheyoke，increasedtheexasperation，andthetyrannyoftheirconqueror。Theirpropertywasalmostcompletelytransferredtohismilitaryfollowers，theirancientlawsweresoondisregarded，althoughsometimespromisedtoberestored，andthepurefeudalsystemoftenurewassubstitutedtotheancientallodialestates，orperhapstheimperfectfeudsoftheSaxons。
WiththissystemtheNormandoctrineofallegianceisconsideredbysometohavebeenintroduced，althoughotherstraceituptoantecedentperiods，3butwhetherthesolemndeclarationofallegiancewaspractisedinthetimeofArthurorofAlfred，whetheritwerethecustomoftheBritonsortheAngles，theSaxonsortheDanes，wehavesufficientgroundforbelievingthataftertheconquest，itwasunderstoodtobedueonlytothekingortherulingchieftain，andnottothenation。