ThreeEssaysintheEarlyHistoryofEnglandbyF。W。MaitlandEssayOneDomesdayBookAtmidwinterintheyear1085WilliamtheConquerorworehiscrownatGloucesterandtherehehaddeepspeechwithhiswisemen。TheoutcomeofthatspeechwasthemissionthroughoutallEnglandof\'barons，\'\'legates\'or\'justices\'chargedwiththedutyofcollectingfromtheverdictsoftheshires，thehundredsandthevillsadescriptioofhisnewrealm。Theoutcomeofthatmissionwasthedescriptiopreservedforusintwomanuscriptvolumes，whichwithinacenturyaftertheirmakinghadalreadyacquiredthenameofDomesdayBook。Thesecondofthosevolumes，sometimesknownasLittleDomesday，dealswithbutthreecounties，namelyEssex，NorfolkandSuffolk，whilethefirstvolumecomprehendstherestofEngland。Alongwiththesewemustplacecertainotherdocumentsthatarecloselyconnectedwiththegrandinquest。Wehaveintheso-calledInquisitioComitatusCantabrigiae，acopy，animperfectcopy，oftheverdictsdeliveredbytheCambridgeshirejurors，andthis，asweshallhereaftersee，isadocumentofthehighestvalue，eventhoughinsomedetailsitisnotalwaysverytrustworthy。1*Wehaveintheso-calledInquisitioEliensisanaccountoftheestatesoftheAbbeyofElyinCambridgeshire，Suffolkandothercounties，anaccountwhichhasasitsultimatesourcetheverdictsofthejuriesandwhichcontainssomeparticularswhichwereomittedfromDomesdayBook。2*Wehaveintheso-calledExonDomesdayanaccountofCornwallandDevonshireandofcertainlandsinSomerset，DorsetandWiltshire；thisalsoseemstohavebeenconstructeddirectlyorindirectlyoutoftheverdictsdeliveredinthosecounties，anditcontainscertainparticularsabouttheamountofstockuponthevariousestateswhichareomittedfromwhat，fordistinction\'ssake，issometimescalledtheExchequerDomesday。3*AtthebeginningofthisExonDomesdaywehavecertainaccountsrelatingtothepaymentofagreatgeld，seeminglythegeldofsixshillingsonthehidethatWilliamleviedinthewinterof1083-4，twoyearsbeforethedeepspeechatGloucester。4*LastlyintheNorthamptonshireGeldRoll，5*
wehavesomepreciousinformationaboutfiscalaffairsastheystoodsomefewyearsbeforethesurvey。6*
Suchinbriefarethedocumentsoutofwhich，withsomesmallhelpfromtheAnglo-Saxondoomsandland-books，fromthechartersofNormankingsandfromtheso-calledLegesoftheConqueror，theConfessorandHenryI，somefuturehistorianmaybeabletoreconstructtheland-lawwhichobtainedintheconqueredEnglandof1086，andforourrecordsfrequentlyspeakofthetempusRegisEdwarditheunconqueredEnglandof1065。ThereflectionthatbutforthedeepspeechatGloucester，butfortheluckysurvivaloftwoorthreemanuscripts，hewouldhaveknownnexttonothingofthatlaw，willmakehimmodestandcautious。Atthepresentmoment，thoughmuchhasbeendonetowardsforcingDomesdayBooktoyielditsmeaning，someofthelegalproblemsthatareraisedbyit，especiallythosewhichconcernthetimeofKingEdward，havehardlybeenstated，muchlesssolved。Itiswithsomehopeofstating，withlittlehopeofsolving，themthatwebeginthisessay。Ifonlywecanasktherightquestionsweshallhavedonesomethingforagoodend。IfEnglishhistoryistobeunderstood，thelawofDomesdayBookmustbemastered。Wehavehereanabsolutelyuniqueaccountoffeudalismintwodifferentstagesofitsgrowth，themoretrustworthy，thoughthemorepuzzling，becauseitgivesusparticularsandnotgeneralities。
Puzzlingenoughitcertainlyis，andthisformanyreasons。
Ourtaskmaybetheeasierifwestatesomeofthosereasonsattheoutset。
TosaythatDomesdayBookisnocollectionoflawsortreatiseonlawwouldbeneedless。Veryseldomdoesitstateanyrulesingeneralterms，andwhenitdoessoweshillusuallyfindcauseforbelievingthatthisruleisitselfanexception，alocalcustom，aprovincialprivilege。Thus，ifwearetocomebygeneralrules，wemustobtaintheminductivelybyacomparisonofmanythousandparticularinstances。Butfurther，DomesdayBookisnoregisteroftitle，noregisterofallthoserightsandfactswhichconstitutethesystemoflandholdership。Onegreatpurposeseemstomouldbothitsformanditssubstance；itisageld-book。
WhenDukeWilliambecamekingoftheEnglish，hefoundsohemightwellthinkamongthemostvaluableofhisnewlyacquiredregaliaarighttolevyaland-taxunderthenameofgeldordanegeld。Adetailedhistoryofthattaxcannotbewritten。Itisundertheyear991thatourEnglishchroniclefirstmentionsatributepaidtotheDanes；7*？0，000wasthenpaidtothem。In994theyetlargersumof？6，0008*waslevied。In1002thetributehadrisento？4，000，9*in1007to？0，000；10*in1009EastKentpaid？，000；11*？1，000wasraisedin1014；12*
in1018Cnutwhennewlycrownedtook？2，000besides？1，000paidbytheLondoners；13*in1040Harthacnuttook？1，099besidesasumof？1，048thatwaspaidforthirty-twoships。14*WithaDaneuponthethrone，thistributeseemstohavebecomeanoccasionalwar-tax。Howoftenitwasleviedwecannottell；butthatitwasleviedmorethanoncebytheConfessorisnotdoubtful。15*Wearetoldthatheabolisheditinorabouttheyear1051，someeightornineyearsafterhisaccession，somefifteenbeforehisdeath。NosoonerwasWilliamcrownedthan\'helaidonmenageldexceedingstiff。\'Inthenextyear\'hesetamicklegeld\'onthepeople。Inthewinterof1083-4heraisedageldof72pence6Normanshillingsuponthehide。Thatthistaxwasenormouslyheavyisplain。Takingonecasewithanother，itwouldseemthatthehidewasfrequentlysupposedtobeworthabout？ayearandthereweremanyhidesinEnglandthatwereworthfarless。Butgrievousaswasthetaxwhichimmediatelyprecededthemakingofthesurvey，wearenotentitledtoinferthatitwasofunprecedentedseverity。ItbroughtWilliambut？15orthereaboutsfromDorsetand？10orthereaboutsfromSomerset。16*Worcestershirewasdeemedtocontainabout1200
hidesandtherefore，evenifnoneofitshideshadbeenexempted，itwouldhavecontributedbut？60。Ifthehugesumsmentionedbythechroniclerhadreallybeenexacted，andthattoowithinthememoryofmenwhowereyetliving，WilliammightwellregardtherighttolevyageldasthemostpreciousjewelinhisEnglishcrown。Tosecureadueandpunctualpaymentofitwasworthagiganticeffort，asurveysuchashadneverbeenmadeandarecordsuchashadneverbeenpennedsincethegrandestdaysoftheoldRomanEmpire。Butfurther，theassessmentofthegeldsadlyneededreform。Owingtoonecauseandanother，owingtoprivilegesandimmunitiesthathadbeencapriciouslygranted，owingalso，sowethink，toaradicallyviciousmethodofcompilingthegeldableareasofcountiesandhundreds，theoldassessmentwasfullofanomaliesandiniquities。Someestateswereover-rated，otherswerescandalouslyunder-rated。ThatWilliamintendedtocorrecttheoldassessment，orrathertosweepitawayandputanewassessmentinitsstead，seemshighlyprobable，thoughithasnotbeenprovedthateitherheorhissonsaccomplishedthisfeat。17*Forthispurpose，however，materialsweretobecollectedwhichwouldenabletheroyalofficerstodecidewhatchangeswerenecessaryinorderthatallEnglandmightbetaxedinaccordancewithajustanduniformplan。Concerningeachestatetheyweretoknowthenumberofgeldableunits\'hides\'or\'carucates\'forwhichithadansweredinKingEdward\'sday，theyweretoknowthenumberofploughoxenthattherewereuponit，theyweretoknowitstrueannualvalue，theyweretoknowwhetherthatvaluehadbeenrisingorfallingduringthepasttwentyyears。DomesdayBookhaswellbeencalledaratebook，andthetaskofspellingoutalandlawfromtheparticularsthatitstatesisnotunlikethetaskthatwouldliebeforeanyonewhoendeavouredtoconstructourmodernlawofrealpropertyoutofratebooks，incometaxreturnsandsimilarmaterials。Allthelands，alltheland-holdersofEnglandmaybebroughtbeforeus，butwearetoldonlyofsuchfacts，suchrights，suchlegalrelationshipsasbearontheactualorpotentialpaymentofgeld。True，thatsomeminorpurposesmaybeachievedbytheking\'scommissioners，thoughthequestforgeldistheironemainobject。Abouttherentsandrendersduefromhisowndemesnemanorsthekingmaythusobtainsomevaluableinformation。Alsohemaylearn，asitwerebytheway，whetheranyofhisbaronsorothermenhavepresumedtooccupy，to\'invade，\'landswhichhehasreservedforhimself。Again，ifseveralpersonsareindisputeaboutatractofground，thecontestmaybeappeasedbythetestimonyofshireandhundred，ormaybereservedfortheking\'saudience；atanyratetheexistenceofanoutstandingclaimmayberecordedbytheroyalcommissioners。Hereandtherethepeculiarcustomsofashireoraboroughwillbestated，andincidentallytheservicesthatcertaintenantsowetotheirlordsmaybenoticed。Butallthisisdonesporadicallyandunsystematically。Ourrecordisnoregisteroftitle，itisnofeodary，itisnocustumal，itisnorentroll；itisataxbook，ageldbook。
Wesaythis，notbywayofvaincomplaintagainstitsmeagreness，butbecauseinourbeliefacareforgeldandforallthatconcernstheassessmentandpaymentofgeldcoloursfarmoredeeplythancommentatorshaveusuallysupposedtheinformationthatisgiventousaboutothermatters。Weshouldnotbesurprisedifdefinitionsanddistinctionswhichatfirstsighthavelittleenoughtodowithfiscalarrangements，forexamplethedefinitionofamanorandthedistinctionbetweenavilleinanda\'freeman\'，involvedreferencestotheapportionmentandthelevyoftheland-tax。Oftenenoughithappensthatlegalideasofaverygeneralkindaredefinedbyfiscalrules；forexample，ourmodernEnglishideaof\'occupation\'hasbecomesomuchpartandparcelofasystemofassessmentthatlawyersarealwaysreadytoarguethatacertainmanmustbean\'occupier\'
becausesuchmenasheareratedtothereliefofthepoor。ItseemsthenafairsuppositionthatanylinethatDomesdayBookdrawssystematicallyandsharply，whetheritbebetweenvariousclassesofmenorbetweenvariousclassesoftenements，issomehoworanotherconnectedwiththemainthemeofthatbook-geldability，actualorpotential。
SincewehavementionedthestoriestoldbythechronicleraboutthetributepaidtotheDanes，wemaymakeacommentuponthemwhichwillbecomeofimportancehereafter。Thosestorieslooktrue，andtheyseemtobeacceptedbymodernhistorians。Hadwebeentoldjustoncethatsomelargenumberofpounds，forexample？0，000，waslevied，orhadthesameroundsumbeenrepeatedinyearafteryear，wemightwellhavesaidthatsuchfiguresdeservednoattention，andthatby？0，000ourannalistmerelymeantabigsumofmoney。But，aswillhavebeenseen，hevarieshisfiguresfromyeartoyearandisnotalwayscontentwitharoundnumber；hespeaksof？1，099andof？1，048。18*Wecanhardlythereforetreathisstatementsasmereloosetalkandarereluctantlydriventosupposethattheyaretrueornearthetruth。Ifthisbeso，then，unlesssomediscoveryhasyettobemadeinthehistoryofmoney，nowordbut\'appalling\'willadequatelydescribethetaxationofwhichhespeaks。WeknowprettyaccuratelytheamountofmoneythatbecameduewhenHenryIorHenryIIimposedadanegeldoftwoshillingsonthehide。
Thefollowingtableconstructedfromthepiperollswillshowthesumchargedagainsteachcounty。Wearrangetheshiresintheorderoftheirindebtedness，forafewofthemanycapricesoftheallotmentwillthusbevisible，andourtablemaybeofusetousinothercontexts。18*
ApproximateChargeofaDanegeldofTwoShillingsontheHideintheMiddleoftheTwelfthCentury？
Wiltshire389
Norfolk330
Somerset278
Lincoln266
Dorset248
Oxford242
Essex236
Suffolk235
Sussex210
Bucks205
Berks202
Gloucester190
S。Hants180
Surrey177
York160
Warwick129
N。Hants。120
Salop118
Cambridge114
Derby&Nottingham110
Hertford110
Bedford110
Kent105
Devon104
Worcester101
Leicester100
Hereford94
Middlesex85
Huntingdon71
Stafford44
Cornwall23
Rutland12
Northumberland100
Cheshire20*0
Total5198
NowbeitunderstoodthatthesefiguresdonotshowtheamountofmoneythatHenryIandHenryIIcouldobtainbyadanegeld。Theyhadtotakemuchless。Whenitwaslastlevied，thetaxwasnotbringingin？500，somanywerethechurchesandgreatfolkwhohadobtainedtemporaryorpermanentexemptionsfromit。WewillciteLeicestershireforexample。Thetotalofthegeldchargeduponitwasalmostexactlyorquiteexactly？00。OnthesecondrollofHenryII\'sreignwefindthat？57s。
6d。havebeenpaidintothetreasury，that？28s。3d。havebeen\'pardoned\'tomagnatesandtemplars，that？18s。2d。arewrittenoffinrespectofwaste，andthat16s。0d。arestilldue。Ontheeighthrolltheaccountshowsthat？212s。7d。havebeenpaidandthat？76s。9d。havebeen\'pardoned。\'No，whatourtabledisplaysistheamountthatwouldberaisedifallexemptionsweredisregardedandnopennyforborne。Andnowletusturnbacktothechronicleandnottotakeanextremeexamplereadof？0，000beingraised。UnlesswearepreparedtobringagainstthefathersofEnglishhistoryachargeofrepeated，wantonandcircumstantiallying，weshallthinkofthedanegeldofAEthelred\'sreignandofCnut\'sasofanimpostsoheavythatitwasfullycapableoftransmutingawholenation。Thereforethelinesthataredrawnbytheincidenceofthistributewillbedeepandpermanent；butstillwemustrememberthatprimarilytheywillbefiscallines。
Thenagain，weoughtnottolooktoDomesdayBookforasettledandstableschemeoftechnicalterms。Suchaschemecouldnotbeestablishedinabrieftwentyyears。Aboutonehalfofthetechnicaltermsthatmeetus，aboutonehalfofthetermswhich，aswethink，oughttobepreciselydefined，are，wemaysay，Englishterms。TheyareancientEnglishwords，ortheyarewordsbroughthitherbytheDanes，ortheyareLatinwordswhichhavelongbeeninuseinEnglandandhaveacquiredspecialmeaningsinrelationtoEnglishaffairs。Ontheotherhand，abouthalfthetechnicaltermsareFrench。SomeofthemareoldLatinwordswhichhaveacquiredspecialmeaningsinFrance，someareRomancewordsnewlycoinedinFrance，someareTeutonicwordswhichtelloftheFrankishconquestofGaul。Intheonegreatclassweplacescira，hundredum，wapentac，hida，berewica，inland，haga，soka，saka，geldum，gablum，Scotum，heregeat，gersuma，thegnus，sochemannus，burus，coscet；intheothercomitatus，carucata，virgata，bovata，arpentum，manerium，feudum，alodium，homagium，relevium，baro，vicecomes，vavassor，villanus，bordarius，colibertus，hospes。Itisnotintwentyyearsthatasettledandstableschemecanbeformedoutofsuchelementsasthese。AndoftenenoughitisverydifficultforustogivejusttherightmeaningtosomesimpleLatinword。Ifwetranslatemilesbysoldierorwarrior，thismaybetooindefinite；ifwetranslateitbyknight，thismaybetoodefinite，andyetleaveopenthequestionwhetherwearecomparingthemilesof1086withthecnihtofunconqueredEnglandorwiththeknightofthethirteenthcentury。Ifwerendervicecomesbysheriffwearemakingoursherifftoolittleofavicomte。WhencomesisbeforeuswehavetochoosebetweengivingBritannyanearl，givingChesteracount，oroffendingsomeofourcomitesbyinvidiousdistinctions。Timewillshowwhatthesewordsshallmean。Somewillperishinthestruggleforexistence；othershavelongandadventurouscareersbeforethem。Atpresenttwosetsoftermsarerudelyintermixed；thetimewhentheywillgrowintoanorganicwholeisbutbeginning。
Tothiswemustaddthat，unlesswehavemistakenthegeneraldriftoflegalhistory，thelawimpliedinDomesdayBookoughttobeforusverydifficultlaw，farmoredifficultthanthelawofthethirteenthcentury，forthethirteenthcenturyisnearertousthanistheeleventh。Thegrownmanwillfinditeasiertothinkthethoughtsoftheschool-boythantothinkthethoughtsofthebaby。Andyetthedoctrinethatourremoteforefathersbeingsimplefolkhadsimplelawdieshard。Toooftenweallowourselvestosupposethat，couldwebutgetbacktothebeginning，weshouldfindthatallwasintelligibleandshouldthenbeabletowatchtheprocesswherebysimpleideasweresmotheredundersubtletiesandtechnicalities。Butitisnotso。
Simplicityistheoutcomeoftechnicalsubtlety；itisthegoalnotthestartingpoint。Aswegobackwardsthefamiliaroutlinesbecomeblurred；theideasbecomefluid，andinsteadofthesimplewefindtheindefinite。Butdifficultthoughourtaskmaybe，wemustturntoit。
NOTES：
1。InquisitioComitatusCantabrigiae，ed。N。E。Hamilton。When，assometimeshappens，thefiguresinthisrecorddifferfromthosegiveninDomesdayBook，thelatterseemtobeingeneraltomorecorrect，forthearithmeticisbetter。AlsoitseemsplainthatthecompilersoftheDomesdayhad，evenfordistrictscomprisedintheInquisitio，othermaterialsbesidesthosethattheInquisitiocontains。Forexample，thatdocumentsaysnothingofsomeoftheroyalmanors。[Sincethisnotewaswritten，Mr。
Round，FeudalEngland，pp。10ff。haspublishedthesameresultafteranelaborateinvestigation。]
2。ThisisprintedinD。B。vol。iv。andgivenbyHamiltonattheendofhisInq。Com。Cantab。AstothemannerinwhichitwascompiledseeRound，FeudalEngland，133ff。
3。TheExonDomesdayisprintedinD。B。vol。iv。
4。Round，DomesdayStudies，i。91：\'IamtemptedtobelievethatthesegeldrollsintheforminwhichwenowhavethemwerecompiledatWinchesterafterthecloseofEaster1084，bythebodywhichwasthegermofthefutureExchequer。\'
5。PrintedbyEllis，IntroductiontoDomesday，i。184。
6。Round，FeudalEngland，147。
7。Earle，TwoChronicles，130-1。
8。Ibid。132-3。
9。Ibid。137。
10。Ibid。141。
11。Ibid。142。
12。Ibid。151。
13。Ibid。160-1。
14。Ibid。167。
15。Thereisavaluablepaperonthissubject，AShortAccountofDanegeld[byP。C。Webb]publishedin1756。
16。D。B。iv。26，489。
17。In1194thetaxforRichard\'sransomseems，atleastinWiltshire，tohavebeendistributedinthemainaccordingtotheassessmentthatprevailedin1084；RollsoftheKing\'sCourtPipeRollSoc。i。Introduction，p。xxiv。
18。ThestatementinAEthelred，ii。7Schmid，p。209astoapaymentof？2，000isinageneralwaycorroborativeofthechronicler\'slargefigures。
19。Thefigureswillbegivenmoreaccuratelyonalaterpage。
20Cheshirepaysnogeldtotheking。ThislossiscompensatedbyasumwhichissometimesexactedfromNorthumberland。
1。PLANOFTHESURVEY
Englandwasalreadymappedoutintocounties，hundredsorwapentakesandvills。TrithingsorridingsappearinYorkshireandLincolnshire，lathesinKent，rapesinSussex，whileleetsappear，atleastsporadicallyinNorfolk。1*Theseprovincialpeculiaritieswemustpassby，norwillwepausetocommentatanylengthonthechangesintheboundariesofcountiesandofhundredsthathavetakenplacesincethedateofthesurvey。
Thoughthesechangeshavebeenmanyandsomefewofthemhavebeenlarge，2*wemaystillsaythatasageneralrulethepoliticalgeographyofEnglandwasalreadystereotyped。Andweseethatalreadytherearemanycuriousanomalies，\'detachedportions\'ofcounties，discretehundreds，placesthatareextra-hundredal，3*placesthatforonepurposeareinonecountyandforanotherpurposeinanothercounty。4*Weseealsothatproprietaryrightshavealreadybeenmakingsportofarrangementswhichinoureyesshouldbefixedbypubliclaw。
Earls，sheriffsandothershaveenjoyedamarvellouspoweroftakingatractoflandoutofonedistrictandplacingit，or\'makingitlie\'inanotherdistrict。5*Landisconstantlyspokenofasthoughitwerethemostportableofthings；itcaneasilybetakenfromonevillorhundredandbeaddedtoorplacedinorcausedtolieinanothervillorhundred。This\'notionalmovability\'ofland，ifwemayusesuchaterm，willbecomeofimportancetouswhenwearestudyingtheformationofmanors。
Forthepresent，however，weareconcernedwiththegeneraltruththatEnglandisdividedintocounties，hundredsorwapentakesandvills。Thisisthegeographicalbasisofthesurvey。Thatbasis，however，ishiddenfromusbytheformofourrecord。TheplanadoptedbythosewhofashionedDomesdayBookoutofthereturnsprovidedforthembytheking\'scommissionersisacurious，compromisingplan。Wemaysaythatinpartitisgeographical，whileinpartitisfeudalorproprietary。Ittakeseachcountyseparatelyandthusfaritisgeographical；butwithintheboundariesofeachcountyitarrangesthelandsunderthenamesofthetenantsinchiefwhoholdthem。ThusallthelandsinCambridgeshireofwhichCountAlanistenantinchiefarebroughttogether，nomatterthattheyliescatteredaboutinvarioushundreds。Thereforeitisnecessaryforustounderstandthattheoriginalreturnsreportedbythesurveyorsdidnotreachtheroyaltreasuryinthisform。AtleastasregardsthecountyofCambridge，wecanbecertainofthis。Thehundredsweretakenonebyone；theyweretakeninageographicalorder，andnotuntilthejusticeshadlearnedallthatwastobeknownofStaplehowhundreddidtheycalluponthejurorsofCheveleyhundredfortheirverdict。ThatsuchwastheirprocedurewemighthaveguessedevenhadwenotbeenfortunateenoughtohaveacopyoftheCambridgeshireverdicts；for，thoughthecommissionersseemtohaveheldbutonemootforeachshire，stillitisplainthateachhundredwasrepresentedbyaseparatesetofjurors。6*ButfromtheseCambridgeshireverdictswelearnwhatotherwisewecouldhardlyhaveknown。Withineachhundredthesurveywasmadebyvills。7*Ifwesupposethecommissionerschargingthejurorswemustrepresentthemassaying，not\'Telluswhattenantsinchiefhavelandsinyourhundredandhowmucheachofthemholds，\'but\'Tellusabouteachvillinyourhundred，whoholdslandinit。\'Thus，forexample，themenoftheArmingfordhundredarecalledup。They，makeaseparatereportabouteachvillinit。Theybeginbystatingthatthevillisratedatacertainnumberofhidesandthentheyproceedtodistributethosehidesamongthetenantsinchief。Thus，forexample，theysaythatAbingtonwasratedat5hides，andthatthose5hidesaredistributedthus：8*
hidesvirgatesHughPincernaholdsofthebishopofWinchester21/21/2
Theking1/2
RalphandRobertholdofHardouindeEschalers111/2
EarlRoger1
Picotthesheriff1/2
AlwinHamelecocthebedelholdsoftheking1/2
50
NowinDomesdayBookwemustlooktoseveraldifferentpagestogetthisinformationaboutthevillofAbington，——toonepageforEarlRoger\'sland，toanotherpageforPicot\'sland，andwemayeasilymisstheimportantfactthatthisvillofAbingtonhasbeenratedasawholeattheneat，roundfigureof5hides。
AndthenweseethatthewholehundredofArmingfordhasbeenratedattheneat，roundfigureof100hides，andhasconsistedofsixvillsratedat10hidesapieceandeightvillsratedat5
hidesapiece。9*Thuswearebroughttolookuponthevillasaunitinasystemofassessment。AllthisisconcealedfromusbytheformofDomesdayBook。
Whenthatbookmentionsthenameofaplace，whenitsaysthatRogerholdsSuttonorthatRalphholdsthreehidesinNorton，weregardthatnameasthenameofavill；itmayormaynotbealsothenameofamanor。Speakingverygenerallywemaysaythattheplacesonamedwillinaftertimesbeknownasavillandinourowndaywillbeacivilparish。NodoubtinsomepartsofthecountrynewvillshavebeencreatedsincetheConqueror\'stime。SomenamesthatoccurinourrecordfailtoobtainapermanentplaceontherollofEnglishvills，becomethenamesofhamletsordisappearaltogether；ontheotherhand，newnamescometothefront。OfcoursewedarenotsaydogmaticallythatallthenamesmentionedinDomesdayBookwerethenamesofvills；verypossiblyifthisdistinctionwasalreadyknownsomeofthemwerethenamesofhamlets；nor，again，doweimplythatthevillaof1086hadmuchorganization；butaplacethatismentionedinDomesdayBookwillprobablyberecognizedasavillinthethirteenth，acivilparishinthenineteenthcentury。LetustakeCambridgeshirebywayofexample。ExcludingtheIsleofEly，wefindthatthepoliticalgeographyoftheConqueror\'sreignhasendureduntilourowntime。Theboundariesofthehundredsliealmostwheretheylay，thenumberofvillshashardlybeenincreasedordiminished。Thechiefchangesamounttothis：——AsmalltractontheeastsideofthecountycontainingExningandBellinghamhasbeenmadeovertoSuffolk；fourothernamescontainedinDomesdaynolongerstandforparishes，whilethenamesoffiveofourmodernparishes——oneofthemisthesignificantnameofNewton——arenotfoundthere。10*Butaboutahundredandtenvillsthatwerevillsin1086arevillsorcivilparishesatthepresentday，andinallprobabilitytheythenhadapproximatelythesameboundariesthattheyhavenow。
Thismaybeasomewhattoofavourableexampleofpermanenceandcontinuity。OfallcountiesCambridgeshireistheonewhoseancientgeographycanbethemosteasilyexamined；butwhereverwehavelookedwehavecometotheconclusionthatthedistributionofEnglandintovillsisinthemainasoldastheNormanconquest。11*Twocausesofdifficultymaybenoticed，fortheyareofsomeinterest。Owingtowhatwehavecalledthe\'notionalmovability\'ofland，wenevercanbequitesurethatwhencertainhidesoracresaresaidtobeinorlieinacertainplacetheyarereallyandphysicallyinthatplace。Theyarereallyinonevillage，buttheyarespokenofasbelongingtoanothervillage，becausetheiroccupantspaytheirgeldordotheirservicesinthelatter。Manorialandfiscalgeographyinterfereswithphysicalandvillargeography。Wehavelatelyseenhowlandratedatfivehideswascomprised，asamatteroffact，inthevillofAbington；butofthosefivehides，onevirgate\'layin\'Shingay，ahalf-hide\'layin\'Litlingtonwhileahalf-virgate\'layandhadalwayslain\'inMorden。12*This，ifwemistakenot，leadsinsomecasestoanomissionofthenamesofsmallvills。Agreatlordhasacompactestate，perhapsthewholeofoneofthesmallsouthernhundreds。Hetreatsitasawhole，andallthelandthathehastherewillbeascribedtosomeconsiderablevillageinwhichhehashishall。Weshouldberashinsupposingthattherewerenoothervillagesonthisland。
Forexample，inSurreythereisnow-a-daysahundredcalledFarnhamwhichcomprisestheparishofFarnham，theparishofFrenshamandsomeothervillages。Ifwemistakenot，allthatDomesdayBookhastosayofthewholeofthisterritoryisthattheBishopofWinchesterholdsFarnham，thatithasbeenratedat60hides，thatithasbeenworththelargesumof？5ayearandthattherearesomanytenantsuponit。12*Wecertainlymustnotdrawtheinferencethattherewasbutonevillinthistract。
Ifthebishopistenantinchiefofthewholehundredandhasbecomeresponsibleforallthegeldthatisleviedtherefrom，thereisnogreatreasonwhythesurveyorsshouldtroublethemselvesaboutthevills。ThusthesimpleEpiscopustenetFernehammaydisposeofsome25，000acresofland。SothesamebishophasanestateatChilcombeinHampshire；butclearlythenameCiltecumbecoversawideterritoryfortherearenolessthanninechurchesuponit。14*Wenevercanbeverycertainabouttheboundariesoftheselargeandcompactestates。
Asecondcauseofdifficultyliesinthefactthatincomparativelymoderntimes，fromthetwelfthcenturyonwards，twoorthreecontiguousvillageswilloftenbearthesamenameandbedistinguishedonlybywhatwemaycalltheirsurnames——thusGuildenMordenandSteepleMorden，StratfieldSaye，StratfieldTurgis，StratfieldMortimer，TolleshuntKnights，TolleshuntMajor，TolleshuntDarcy。Suchcasesarecommon；insomedistrictstheyarehardlyexceptional。Doubtlesstheypointtoatimewhenasinglevillagebysomeprocessofcolonizationorsubdivisionbecometwovillages。NowDomesdayBookseldomenablesustosayforcertainwhetherthechangehasalreadytakenplace。Inafewinstancesitmarksoffthelittlevillagefromthegreatvillageofthesamename。15*Insomeotherinstancesitwillspeak，forexample，ofMorduneandMorduneAlia，ofEmingefordeandEmingefordeAlia，orthelike，thusshowingboththatthechangehastakenplace，andalsothatitissorecentthatitisrecognizedonlybyveryclumsyterms。InCambridgeshire，sincewehavetheoriginalverdicts，wecanseethatthetwoMordensarealreadydistinct；theoneisratedattenhides，theotheratfive。16*Ontheotherhand，wecanseethatourGreatandLittleShelfordareratedasonevilloftwentyhides，17*ourCastleCampsandShudyCampsasonevilloffivehides。18*
Elsewherewearelefttoguesswhetherthefissioniscomplete，andthesurnamesthatmanyofourvillsultimatelyacquire，thenamesoffamilieswhichrosetogreatnessinthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies，willoftensuggestthatthesurveyorssawbutonevillwhereweseetwo。19*However，thebroadtruthstandsoutthatEnglandwasdividedintovillsandthatingeneralthevillofDomesdayBookisstillavillinafterdays。20*
The\'vill\'or\'town\'ofthelatermiddleageswas，likethe\'civilparish\'ofourownday，atractoflandwithsomehousesonit，andthistractwasaunitinthenationalsystemofpoliceandfinance。21*ButwearenotentitledtomakeforourselvesanyonetypicalpictureoftheEnglishvill。Wearelearningfromtheordnancemapthatmarvellouspalimpsest，whichunderDrMeitzen\'sguidancewearebeginningtodecipherthatinallprobabilitywemustkeepatleasttwotypesbeforeourminds。Ontheonehand，thereiswhatwemightcallthetruevillageorthenucleatedvillage。Inthepurestformofthistypethereisoneandonlyoneclusterofhouses。Itisafairlylargecluster；itstandsinthemidstofitsfields，ofitsterritory，anduntillatelyaconsiderablepartofitsterritorywillprobablyhaveconsistedofspacious\'commonfields。\'Inacountryinwhichtherearevillagesofthistypetheparishboundariesseemalmosttodrawthemselves。22*Ontheotherhand，wemayeasilyfindacountryinwhichtherearefewvillagesofthischaracter。Thehouseswhichliewithintheboundaryoftheparisharescatteredaboutinsmallclusters；heretwoorthree，therethreeorfour。
Theseclustersoftenhavenamesoftheirown，anditseemsamerechancethatthenamebornebyoneofthemshouldbealsothenameofthewholeparishorvill。23*Weseenotracesofverylargefields。Onthefaceofthemapthereisnoreasonwhyaparticulargroupofcottagesshouldbereckonedtobelongtothisparishratherthantothenext。Asoureyesgrowaccustomedtotheworkwemayarriveatsomeextremely，importantconclusionssuchasthosewhichMeitzenhassuggested。TheoutlinesofournucleatedvillagesmayhavebeendrawnforusbyGermanicsettlers，whereasinthelandofhamletsandscatteredsteadsoldCelticarrangementsmayneverhavebeenthoroughlyeffaced。
Towardstheoriesofthiskindweareslowlywinningourway。InthemeantimeletusrememberthatavillaofDomesdayBookmaycorrespondtooneofatleasttwoverydifferentmodelsormaybeintermediatebetweenvarioustypes。Itmaybeafairlylargeandagrarianlyorganicunit，oritmaybeagroupofsmallagrarianunitswhicharebeingheldtogetherinonewholemerely，byanexternalforce，bypolicelawandfiscallaw。24*
Twolittlefragmentsof\'theoriginalone-inchordnancemap\'
willbemoreeloquentthanwouldbemanyparagraphsofwrittendiscourse。TheonepicturesadistrictontheborderbetweenOxfordshireandBerkshirecutbytheThamesandthemainlineoftheGreatWesternRailway；theotheradistrictontheborderbetweenDevonandSomerset，northofCollumptonandsouthofWiveliscombe。Neitherisanextremeexample。Truevillageswemayeasilyfind。Cambridgeshire，forinstance，wouldhaveaffordedsomebeautifulspecimens，formanyofthe\'openfields\'werestillopenwhentheordnancemapofthatcountywasmade。ButthroughoutlargetractsofEngland，eventhoughtherehasbeenan\'inclosure\'andtherearenolongeranyopenfields，ourmapoftenshowsalandofvillages。Whenitdoessoandthedistrictthatitportraysisapurelyagriculturaldistrict，wemaygenerallyassumewithoutgoingfarwrongthatthevillagesareancient，forduringatleastthelastthreecenturiesthepredominantcurrentinouragrarianhistoryhassetagainsttheformationofvillagesandtowardsthedistributionofscatteredhomesteads。TofindthepurestspecimensofalandofhamletsweoughttogotoWalesortoCornwallortootherpartsof\'theCelticfringe\'；veryfairexamplesmightbefoundthroughoutthewestofEngland。Alsowemayperhapsfindhamletsratherthanvillageswherevertherehavebeenwithinthehistoricperiodlargetractsofforestland。Veryoften，again，theparishortownshiplooksonourmaplikeahybrid。Weseemtoseeavillagewithsatellitichamlets。Muchmoreremainstobedonebeforeweshallbeabletoconstruethetestimonyofourfieldsandwallsandhedges，butatleasttwotypesofvillmustbeinoureyeswhenwearereadingDomesdayBook。25*
TosaythatthevillaofDomesdayBookisingeneralthevillofthethirteenthcenturyandthecivilparishofthenineteenthistosaythatthearealextentofthevillavariedwidelyfromcasetocase。Moreimportantisitforustoobservethatthenumberofinhabitantsofthevillavariedwidelyfromcasetocase。Theerrorintowhichwearemostlikelytofallwillbethatofmakingourvilltoopopulous。Somevills，especiallysomeroyalvills，arepopulousenough；afewcontainahundredhouseholds；buttheaveragetownshipiscertainlymuchsmallerthanthis。26*Beforewegiveanyfigures，itshouldfirstbeobservedthatDomesdayBookneverenablesustocountheads。Itstatesthenumberofthetenantsofvariousclasses，sochemanni，villani，bordarii，andthelike，andleavesustosupposethateachofthesepersonsis，ormaybe，theheadofahousehold。Italsostateshowmanyservithereare。Whetherweoughttosupposethatonlytheheadsofservilehouseholdsarereckoned，orwhetherweoughttothinkoftheserviashavingnohouseholdsbutaslivingwithinthelord\'sgatesandbeingenumerated，men，womenandable-bodiedchildren，bythehead——thisisadifficultquestion。Stillwemayreachsomeresultswhichwillenableustocomparetownshipwithtownship。BywayoffairsamplewemaytaketheArmingfordhundredofCambridgeshire，andallpersonswhoareabovetherankofserviwewillincludeundertheterm\'thenon-servilepopulation\'。27*
ArmingfordHundredNon-servilepopulationServiTotalAbingdon19019
Bissingbourn35338
Clapton19019
Croydon29029
Hatley18321
Litlington37643
Melbourn62163
Meldreth44751
Morden431154
MordenAlia50050
Shingay18018
Tadlow27431
Wendy12416
Whaddon44650
Total45745502
Hereinfourteenvillswehaveanaverageofthirty-twonon-servilehouseholdsforeveryvill。Noweveninourowndayaparishwiththirty-twohouses，thoughsmall，isnotextremelysmall。ButweshouldformawrongpictureoftheEnglandoftheeleventhcenturyifwefilledallpartsofitwithsuchvillsasthese。WewilltakeatrandomfourteenvillsinStaffordshireheldbyEarlRoger。28*
Non-servilepopulationServiTotalClaverlege45045
Nordlege909
Alvidelege13013
Halas40242
Chenistelei11011
Otne718
Nortberie20121
Erlide8210
Gaitone16016
Cressvale808
Dodintone303
Modreshale505
Almentone808
Metford718
Total2007207
Hereforfourteenvillswehaveanaverageofbutfourteennon-servile。householdsandtheserviaresofewthatwemayneglectthem。WewillnextlookatapageinthesurveyofSomersetshirewhichdescribescertainvillsthathavefallentothelotofthebishopofCoutances。29*
Herewehaveontheaveragebutelevennon-servilehouseholdsforeachvillage，andevenifwesupposeeachservustorepresentahousehold，wehavenotfourteenhouseholds。YetsmallervillswillbefoUndinDevonshire，manyvillsinwhichthetotalnumberofthepersonsmentioneddoesnotexceedtenandnearhalfoftheseareservi。InCornwallthetownships，iftownshipsweoughttocallthem，areyetsmaller；oftenwecanattributenomorethanfiveorsixfamiliestothevillevenifweincludetheservi。
Non-servilepopulationServiTotalWinemeresham8311
Chetenore314
Widicumbe21627
Harpetrev10212
Hotune11011
Lilebere617
Wintreth426
Aisecome11718
Clutone22123
Temesbare7310
Nortone16319
Cliveham15116
Ferenberge13619
Cliveware606
Total15336189
Unlessourcalculationsmisleadus，thedensityofthepopulationintheaveragevillofagivencountyvariessomewhatdirectlywiththedensityofthepopulationinthatcounty；atalleventswecannotsaythatwherevillsarepopulous，villswillbefew。Asregardsthismatternopreciseresultsareattainable；ourdocumentisfullofsnaresforarithmeticians。
Stillifforamomentwehaverecoursetothecrudemethodofdividingthenumberofacrescomprisedinamoderncountybythenumberofthepersonswhoarementionedinthesurveyofthatcounty，theoutcomeofourcalculationwillberemarkableandwillpointtosomebroadtruth。30*ForSuffolkthequotientis46orthereabouts；forNorfolkbutlittlelarger；31*forEssex61，forLincoln67；forBedford，Berkshire，Northampton，Leicester，Middlesex，Oxford，KentandSomersetitliesbetween70and80，forBuckingham，Warwick，Sussex，WiltshireandDorsetitliesbetween80and90；Devon，Gloucester，Worcester，Herefordarethinlypeopled，Cornwall，Stafford，Shropshireverythinly。
Someparticularresultsthatweshouldthusattainwouldbedelusive。ThusweshouldsaythatmenweresparseinCambridgeshire，didwenotrememberthatalargepartofourmodernCambridgeshirewasthenasheetofwater。Permanentphysicalcausesinterferewiththeoperationofthegeneralrule。
ThusSurrey，withitswideheaths，has，aswemightexpect，butfewmentothesquaremile。Derbyshirehasmanyvillslyingwaste；Yorkshireissomuchwastedthatitcangiveusnovaluableresult；andagain，YorkshireandCheshirewerelargerthantheyarenow，whileRutlandandtheadjacentcountieshadnottheirpresentboundaries。Forallthis，however，wecometoaverygeneralrule：——thedensityofthepopulationdecreasesaswepassfromeasttowest。Withthiswemayconnectanotherrule：
landismuchmorevaluableintheeastthanitisinthewest。
Thismatterisindeedhedgedinbymanythornyquestions；still，whateverhypothesiswemayadoptastothemodeinwhichlandwasvalued，onegeneraltruthcomesoutprettyplainly，namely，that，economicarrangementsbeingwhattheywere，itwasfarbettertohaveateam-landinEssexthantohaveanequalareaofarablelandinDevon。
BetweeneasternandwesternEnglandthereweredifferencesvisibletothenaturaleye。Withthesewereconnectedunseenandlegaldifferences，partlyascauses，partlyaseffects。ButforthemomentletusdwellonthefactthatmanyanEnglishvillhasveryfewinhabitants。Wearetospeakhereafterofvillagecommunities。Letusthereforereflectthatacommunityofsomeeightortenhouseholdersisnotlikelytobeahighlyorganizedentity。Thisisnotall，fortheseeightortenhouseholderswilloftenbelongtotwo，threeorfourdifferentsocialandeconomic，ifnotlegal，classes。Somemaybesokemen，somevillani，bordarii，cotarii，andbesidesthemtherewillbeafewservi。Ifavillconsists，asinDevonshireoftenenoughitwill，ofsomethreevillani，somefourbordariiandsometwoservi，the\'township-moot，\'ifsuchamoottherebe，willbeaqueerlittleassembly；themanorialcourt，ifsuchacourttherebe，willnothavemuchtodo。Thesemencannothavemanycommunalaffairs；
therewillbenogreatscopefordoomsorforby-laws；theymaywelltakealltheirdisputesintothehundredcourt，especiallyinDevonshirewherethehundredsaresmall。Thusofthevisiblevilloftheeleventhcenturyanditsmaterialsurroundingswemayformawrongnotion。Oftenenoughinthewestitscommonfieldsifcommonfieldsithadwerenotwidefields；themenwhohadsharesthereinwerefewandbelongedtovariousclasses。ThusoftwovillagesinGloucestershire，BrookthorpeandHarescombe，allthatwecanreadisthatinBrostropthereweretwoteams，onevillanus，threebordarii，fourservi，whileinHersecomethereweretwoteams，twobordariiandfiveservi。32*ManyaDevonshiretownshipcanproducebuttwoorthreeteams。Oftenenoughour\'villagecommunity\'willbeaheterogeneouslittlegroupwhosemaincapitalconsistsofsome300acresofarablelandandsome20beastsoftheplough。
Ontheotherhand，wemustbecarefulnottoomitfromourviewtherichandthicklypopulatedshiresortoimagineortospeakasthoughweimaginedthatageneraltheoryofEnglishhistorycanneglecttheEastofEngland。IfweleaveLincolnshire，NorfolkandSuffolkoutofaccountwearetoallappearanceleavingoutofaccountnotmuchlessthanaquarterofthewholenation。33*Letusmakethreegroupsofcounties：1
aSouth-WesterngroupcontainingDevon，Somerset，DorsetandWiltshire：2aMid-WesterngroupcontainingtheshiresofGloucester，Worcester，Hereford，Salop，StaffordandWarwick：3
anEasterngroupcontainingLincolnshire，NorfolkandSuffolk。
Thefirstofthesegroupshasthelargest；thethirdthesmallestacreage。InDomesdayBook，however，thefigureswhichstatetheirpopulationseemtobethese：34*——
South-WesternGroup：49，155
Mid-WesternGroup：33，191
EasternGroup：72，883
Thesefiguresaresoemphaticthattheymaycauseusforamomenttodoubttheirvalue，andondetailswemustlaynostress。Butwehavematerialswhichenableustocheckthegeneraleffect。In1297EdwardIleviedalaysubsidyofaninth。35*Thesumsbornebyourthreegroupsofcountieswerethese：——？
South-WesternGroup：4，038
Mid-WesternGroup：3，514
EasternGroup：7，329
Thereisacuriousresemblancebetweenthesetwosetsoffigures。Thenin1377and1381returnsweremadeforapoll-tax。36*Thenumberofpollsreturnedinourthreegroupswerethese：——
13771381
South-WesternGroup：183，842106，086
Mid-WesternGroup：158，245115，679
EasternGroup：255，498182，830
Nodoubtallinferencesdrawnfrommedievalstatisticsareexceedinglyprecarious；but，unlessagoodmanyfigureshaveconspiredtodeceiveus，Lincolnshire，NorfolkandSuffolkwereatthetimeoftheConquestandforthreecenturiesafterwardsvastlyricherandmorepopulousthananytractofequalareaintheWest。
AnotherdistinctionbetweentheeasterncountiesandtherestofEnglandisapparent。Inmanyshiresweshallfindthatthenameofeachvillismentionedonceandnomore。Thisissobecausethelandofeachvillbelongsinitsentiretytosomeonetenantinchief。Wemaygofurther：wemaysay，thoughatpresentinanuntechnicalsense，thateachvillisamanor。Suchisthegeneralrule，thoughtherewillbeexceptionstoit。Ontheotherhand，intheeasterncountiesthisrulewillbecometheexception。Forexample，ofthefourteenvillsintheArmingfordhundredofCambridgeshirethereisbutoneofwhichitistruethatthewholeofitslandisheldbyasingletenantinchief。
InthiscountyitiscommontofindthatthreeorfourNormanlordsholdlandinthesamevill。ThisseemstruenotonlyofCambridgeshire，butalsoofEssex，Suffolk，Norfolk，Lincoln，Nottingham，Derby，andsomepartsofYorkshire。EveninotherdistrictsofEnglandtherulethateachvillhasasinglelordisbynomeansunbrokenintheConqueror\'sdayandwecanseethatthereweremanyexceptionstoitintheConfessor\'s。AcarefulexaminationofallEnglandvillbyvillwouldperhapsshowthatthecontrastwhichwearenotingisneithersosharpnorsoancientasatfirstsightitseemstobe：neverthelessitexists。
Abetterknowncontrastthereis。Theeasterncountiesarethehomeofliberty。37*Wemaydividethetillersofthesoilintofivegreatclasses；theseinorderofdignityandfreedomare1liberihomines，2sochemanni，3villani，4
bordarii，cotarii，etc。，5servi。ThetwofirstoftheseclassesaretobefoundinlargenumbersonlyinNorfolk，Suffolk，Lincolnshire，Nottinghamshire，LeicestershireandNorthamptonshire。WeshallhereafterseethatCambridgeshirealsohasbeenfullofsokemen，thoughsincetheConquesttheyhavefallenfromtheirhighestate。Ontheotherhand，thenumberofserviincreasesprettysteadilyaswecrossthecountryfromeasttowest。ItreachesitsmaximuminCornwallandGloucestershire；
itisverylowinNorfolk，Suffolk，Derby，Leicester，Middlesex，Sussex；itdescendstozeroinYorkshireandLincolnshire。ThisdescenttozeromayfairlywarnusthatthetermswithwhichwearedealingmaynotbearpreciselythesamemeaninginallpartsofEngland，orthatasmallclassisapttobereckonedasformingpartofalargerclass。Butstillitisclearenoughthatsomeofthesetermsareusedwithcareandexpressrealandimportantdistinctions。
Ofthisweareassuredbyadocumentwhichseemstoreproducethewordingoftheinstructionswhichdefinedthedutyofatleastonepartyofroyalcommissioners。38*WeareabouttospeakofthemodeinwhichtheoccupantsofthesoilareclassifiedbyDomesdayBook，andthereforethisdocumentdeservesourbestattention。Itrunsthus：——TheKing\'sbaronsinquiredbytheoathofthesheriffoftheshireandofallthebaronsandoftheirFrenchmenandofthewholehundred，thepriest，reeveandsixvillaniofeveryvill，howthemansionmansioiscalled，whohelditinthetimeofKingEdward，whoholdsitnow，howmanyhides，howmanyplough-teamsonthedemesne，howmanyploughteamsofthemen，howmanyvillani，howmanycotarii，howmanyservi，howmanyliberihomines，howmanysochemanni，howmuchwood，howmuchmeadow，howmuchpasture，howmanymills，howmanyfisheries，howmuchhasbeentakenawaytherefrom，howmuchaddedthereto，andhowmuchthereisnow，howmucheachliberhomoandsochemannushadandhas：——Allthisthriceover，towitasregardsthetimeofKingEdward，thetimewhenKingWilliamgaveit，andthepresenttime，andwhethermorecanbehadthencethanishadnow。39*
Fiveclassesofmenarementionedandtheyarementionedinanorderthatisextremelycurious：——villani，cotarii，servi，liberihomines，sochemanni。Itdescendsthreesteps，thenitleapsfromtheverybottomofthescaletotheverytopandthenceitdescendsonestep。AparodyofitmightspeakoftheruralpopulationofmodernEnglandasconsistingoflargefarmers，smallfarmers，cottagers，greatlandlords，smalllandlords。Butalittleconsiderationwillconvinceusthatbeneaththisapparentcapricethereliessomelegalprinciple。Weshallobservethatthesefivespeciesoftenantsaregroupedintotwogenera。Thekingwantstoknowhowmucheachliberhomo，howmucheachsochemannusholds；hedoesnotwanttoknowhowmucheachvillanus，eachcotarius，eachservusholds。Connectingthiswiththemainobjectofthewholesurvey，weshallprobablybebroughttotheguessthatbetweenthesokemanandthevilleinthereissomebroaddistinctionwhichconcernsthekingastherecipientofgeld。Mayitnotbethis：——thevillein\'slordisanswerableforthegeldduefromthelandthatthevilleinholds，thesokeman\'slordisnotanswerable，atleastheisnotanswerableasprincipaldebtorforthegeldduefromthelandthatthesokemanholds？Ifthisbeso，theorderinwhichthefiveclassesofmenarementionedwillnotseemunnatural。Itproceedsoutwardsfromthelordandhismansio。Firstitmentionsthepersonsseatedonlandforthegeldofwhichheisresponsible，andthemitarrangesinan\'orderofmerit。\'Thenitturnstopersonswho，thoughinsomewayoranotherconnectedwiththelordandhismansio，arethemselvestax-payers，andconcerningthemthecommissionersaretoinquirehowmucheachofthemholds。Ofcoursewecannotsaythatthistheoryisprovedbythestatementthatliesbeforeus；butitissuggestedbythatstatementandmayforawhileserveusasaworkinghypothesis。
Ifthistheorybesound，thenwehavehereadistinctionoftheutmostimportance。Foronemightypurpose，thepurposethatisuppermostinKingWilliam\'smind，thevillanusisnotalandowner，hislordisthelandowner；ontheotherhand，thesochemannusisalandowner，andistaxedassuch。Wearenotsayingthatthisisapurelyfiscaldistinction。Inlegallogicthelord\'sliabilityforthegeldthatisapportionedonthelandoccupiedbyhisvilleinsmayberatheraneffectthanacause。A
lawyermightarguethatthelordmustpaybecausetheoccupierishisvillanus，notthattheoccupierisavillanusbecausethelordpays。Andyet，aswemayoftenseeinlegalhistory，therewillbeactionandreactionbetweencauseandeffect。Thegeldisnotrifle。LeviedatthatrateofsixshillingsonthehideatwhichKingWilliamhasjustnowleviedit，itisamomentousforcecapableofdepressinganddisplacingwholeclassesofmen。
In1086thistaxissomuchineverybody\'smindthatanydistinctionastoitsincidencewillcutdeeplyintothebodyofthelaw。
Nowthisclassificationofmenwewilltakeasthestartingpointforourenterprise。Ifwecoulddefinetheliberhomo，sochemannus，villanus，cotarius，servus，weshouldhavesolvedsomeofthegreatlegalproblemsofDomesdayBook，forbythewayweshouldhavehadtodefinetwootherdifficultterms，namelymaneriumandsoca。Itwouldthenremainthatweshouldsaysomethingofthehigherstrataofsociety，ofearlsandsheriffs，ofbarons，knights，thegnsandtheirtenures，ofsuchtermsasalodiumandfeudum，ofthegeneraltheoryoflandownershiporlandholdership。Wewillbeginwiththelowestorderofmen，withtheservi，andthenceworkourwayupwards。Butourcoursecannotbestraightforward。Therearesomanytermstobeexplainedthatsometimesweshallbecompelledtoleaveaquestionbutpartiallyansweredwhileweareendeavouringtofindapartialanswerforsomeyetmoredifficultquestion。