andwhatthetrueprinciplesareofprotestantecclesiasticalpolicy。ThispolicyhadnobeingtillLuthermadehisestablishmentinGermany；tillZwingliusbegananotherinSwitzerland，whichCalvincarriedon，and，likeAmericusVesputiuswhofollowedChristopherColumbus，robbedthefirstadventurerofhishonor；andtillthereformationinourcountrywasperfectedunderEdwardtheSixthandElizabeth。Evenpopishecclesiasticalpolicyisnolongerthesamesincethatera。Hisholinessisnolongerattheheadofthewholewesternchurch：andtokeepthepartthatadherestohim，heisobligedtoloosentheirchains，andtolightenhisyoke。Thespiritandpretensionsofhiscourtarethesame，butnotthepower。Hegovernsbyexpedientandmanagementmore，andbyauthorityless。Hisdecreesandhisbriefsareindangerofbeingrefused，explainedaway，orevaded，unlesshenegotiatestheiracceptancebeforehegivesthem，governsinconcertwithhisflock，andfeedshissheepaccordingtotheirhumorandinterest。Inshort，hisexcommunications，thatmadethegreatestemperorstremble，aredespisedbythelowestmembersofhisowncommunion；andtheremainingattachmenttohimhasbeen，fromthisera，ratherapoliticalexpedienttopreserveanappearanceofunity，thanaprincipleofconscience；whateversomebigottedprincesmayhavethought，whateverambitiousprelatesandhirelingscribblersmayhavetaught，andwhateverapeople，workeduptoenthusiasmbyfanaticalpreachers，mayhaveacted。Proofsofthiswouldbeeasytodraw，notonlyfromtheconductofsuchprincesasFerdinandtheFirstandMaximiliantheSecond，whocouldscarcebeesteemedpapiststhoughtheycontinuedinthepope’scommunion；butevenfromthatofprinceswhopersecutedtheirprotestantsubjectswithgreatviolence。Enoughhasbeensaid，Ithink，toshowyourlordshiphowlittleneedthereisofgoinguphigherthanthebeginningofthesixteenthcenturyinthestudyofhistory，toacquirealltheknowledgenecessaryatthistimeinecclesiasticalpolicy，orincivilpolicyasfarasitisrelativetothis。Historicalmonumentsofthissortareineveryman’shand，thefactsaresufficientlyverified，andtheentiresceneslieopentoourobservation：eventhatsceneofsolemnrefinedbanterexhibitedinthecouncilofTrent，imposesonnomanwhoreadsPaolo，aswellasPallavicini，andthelettersofVargas。
AViewoftheCivilGovernmentofEuropeintheBeginningoftheSixteenthCenturyI。InFranceAverylittlehigherneedwego，toobservethosegreatchangesinthecivilconstitutionsoftheprincipalnationsofEurope，inthepartitionofpoweramongthem，andbyconsequenceinthewholesystemofEuropeanpolicy，whichhaveoperatedsostronglyformorethantwocenturies，andwhichoperatestill。IwillnotaffrontthememoryofourHenrytheSeventhsomuchastocomparehimtoLouistheEleventh：andyetIperceivesomeresemblancebetweenthem；whichwouldperhapsappeargreater，ifPhilipofCommineshadwrittenthehistoryofHenryaswellasthatofLouis；orifmyLordBaconhadwrittenthatofLouisaswellasthatofHenry。ThisprincecametothecrownofEnglandalittlebeforethecloseofthefifteenthcentury：andLouisbeganhisreigninFranceabouttwentyyearssooner。Thesereignsmakeremarkableperiodsinthehistoriesofbothnations。Toreducethepower，privileges，andpossessionsofthenobility，andtoincreasethewealthandauthorityofthecrown，wastheprincipalobjectofboth。Inthistheirsuccesswassogreat，thattheconstitutionsofthetwogovernmentshavehad，sincethattime，moreresemblance，innameandinformthaninreality，totheconstitutionsthatprevailedbefore。LouistheEleventhwasthefirst，saytheFrench，“quimitlesroishorsdepage。“Theindependencyofthenobilityhadrenderedthestateofhispredecessorsverydependent，andtheirpowerprecarious。Theywerethesovereignsofgreatvassals；butthesevassalsweresopowerfulthatoneofthemwassometimesable，andtwoorthreeofthemalways，togivelawtothesovereign。BeforeLouiscametothecrown，theEnglishhadbeendrivenoutoftheirpossessionsinFrance，bythepoorcharacterofHenrytheSixth，thedomestictroublesofhisreign，andthedefectionofthehouseofBurgundyfromthisalliance，muchmorethanbytheabilityofCharlestheSeventh，whoseemstohavebeenneitheragreaterheronoragreaterpoliticianthanHenrytheSixth；andeventhanbythevigorandunionoftheFrenchnobilityinhisservice。AfterLouiscametothecrown，EdwardtheFourthmadeashowofcarryingthewaragainintoFrance；buthesoonreturnedhomeandyourlordshipwillnotbeatalosstofindmuchbetterreasonsforhisdoingso，inthesituationofhisaffairsandthecharactersofhisallies，thanthosewhichPhilipofComminesdrawsfromtheartificeofLouis，fromhisgoodcheer，andhispensions。
NowfromthistimeourpretensionsonFrancewereineffectgivenup：andCharlestheBold，thelastprinceofthehouseofBurgundy，beingkilled，Louishadnovassalabletomolesthim。Here-unitedtheDutchyofBurgundyandArtoistohiscrown，heacquiredProvencebygift，andhissonBrittanybymarriage：andthusFrancegrew，inthecourseofafewyears，intothatgreatandcompactbodywhichwebeholdatthistime。ThehistoryofFrancebeforehisperiodis，likethatofGermany，acomplicatedhistoryofseveralstatesandseveralinterests；sometimesconcurringlikemembersofthesamemonarchy，andsometimeswarringononeanother。Sincethisperiod，thehistoryofFranceisthehistoryofonestateunderamoreuniformandorderlygovernment；
thehistoryofamonarchywhereintheprinceispossessorofsome，aswellaslordofallthegreatfieffes：and，theauthorityofmanytyrantscenteringinone，thoughthepeoplearenotbecomemorefree，yetthewholesystemofdomesticpolicyisentirelychanged。Peaceathomeisbettersecured，andthenationgrownfittertocarrywarabroad。Thegovernorsofgreatprovincesandofstrongfortresseshaveopposedtheirking，andtakenarmsagainsthisauthorityandcommissionsincethattime：butyetthereisnomoreresemblancebetweentheauthorityandpretensionsofthesegovernors，orthenatureandoccasionsofthesedisputes，andtheauthorityandpretensionsofthevassalsofthecrowninformerdays，orthenatureandoccasionsoftheirdisputeswiththeprinceandwithoneanother，thanthereisbetweentheancientandthepresentpeersofFrance。Inaword，theconstitutionissoaltered，thatanyknowledgewecanacquireaboutitinthehistorythatprecedesthisperiod，willservetolittlepurposeinourstudyofthehistorythatfollowsit，andtolesspurposestillinassistingustojudgeofwhatpassesinthepresentage。ThekingsofFrancesincethattime，moremastersathome，havebeenabletoexertthemselvesmoreabroad：andtheybegantodosoimmediately；
forCharlestheEighth，sonandsuccessorofLouistheEleventh，formedgreatdesignsofforeignconquests，thoughtheyweredisappointedbyhisinability，bythelevityofthenation，andbyothercauses。LouistheTwelfthandFrancistheFirst，butespeciallyFrancis，meddleddeepintheaffairsofEurope：