Wemaynowtakeuptheevolutionofmedicalscienceoutofthemedievalviewanditsmodernsurvivals。AllthroughtheMiddleAges，aswehaveseen，somefewlaymenandecclesiasticshereandthere，bravingtheedictsoftheChurchandpopularsuperstition，persistedinmedicalstudyandpractice：thiswasespeciallyseenatthegreateruniversities，whichhadbecomesomewhatemancipatedfromecclesiasticalcontrol。InthethirteenthcenturytheUniversityofParisgaveastrongimpulsetotheteachingofmedicine，andinthatandthefollowingcenturywebegintofindthefirstintelligiblereportsofmedicalcasessincethecominginofChristianity。
Inthethirteenthcenturyalsothearch-enemyofthepapacy，theEmperorFrederickII，showedhisfree-thinkingtendenciesbygranting，fromtimetotime，permissionstodissectthehumansubject。Inthecenturiesfollowing，sundryothermonarchstimidlyfollowedhisexample：thusJohnofAragon，in1391，gavetotheUniversityofLeridatheprivilegeofdissectingonedeadcriminaleverythreeyears。[319]
[319]Forthepromotionofmedicalscienceandpractice，especiallyinthethirteenthcentury，bytheuniversities，seeBaas，pp。222-224。
Duringthefifteenthcenturyandtheearlieryearsofthesixteenththerevivaloflearning，theinventionofprinting，andthegreatvoyagesofdiscoverygaveanewimpulsetothought，andinthismedicalscienceshared：theoldtheologicalwayofthinkingwasgreatlyquestioned，andgaveplaceinmanyquarterstoadifferentwayoflookingattheuniverse。
InthesixteenthcenturyParacelsusappears——agreatgenius，doingmuchtodevelopmedicinebeyondthereachofsacredandscholastictradition，thoughstillfetteredbymanysuperstitions。Moreandmore，inspiteoftheologicaldogmas，camearenewalofanatomicalstudiesbydissectionofthehumansubject。ThepracticeoftheoldAlexandrianSchoolwasthusresumed。Mundinus，ProfessorofMedicineatBolognaearlyinthefourteenthcentury，daredusethehumansubjectoccasionallyinhislectures；butfinallycameafargreaterchampionofscientifictruth，AndreasVesalius，founderofthemodernscienceofanatomy。Thebattlewagedbythismanisoneofthegloriesofourrace。