1850
PartI
IntroductoryNoteThomasBabingtonMacaulay（1800-1859）wasthesonofZacharyMacaulay，aScotsmanwhoseexperienceintheWestIndieshadmadehimanardentAbolitionist。Thomaswasaninfantprodigy，andtheextraordinarymemorywhichisbornewitnesstoinhiswritingswasdevelopedatanearlyage。HewaseducatedatCambridge，studiedlaw，andbegantowriteforthe\"EdinburghReview\"attwenty-five，hiswell-knownstylebeingalreadyformed。HeenteredtheHouseofCommonsin1830，andatoncemadeareputationasanorator。In1834hewenttoIndiaasamemberoftheSupremeCouncil，andduringhisthreeandahalfyearsthereheprovedhimselfacapableandbeneficentadministrator。Onhisreturn，heagainenteredParliament，heldcabinetoffice，andretiredfrompoliticallifein1856。
Untilabout1844Macaulay’swritingsappearedchieflyinthe\"EdinburghReview，\"thegreatorganoftheWhigParty，towhichhebelonged。Thesearticlesasnowcollectedareperhapsthemostwidelyknowncriticalandhistoricalessaysinthelanguage。Thebrilliantantitheticalstyle，thewealthofillustration，thepompandpicturesquenesswithwhichtheeventsofthenarrativearebroughtbeforetheeyesofthereader，combinetomaketheminthehighestdegreeentertainingandinforming。His\"HistoryofEngland，\"
whichoccupiedhislateryears，wasthemostpopularbookofitskindeverpublishedinEngland，andoweditssuccesstomuchthesamequalities。The\"LaysofAncientRome\"andhisotherversesgainedandstillholdalargepublic，mainlybyvirtueoftheirvigorofmovementandstrongdeclamatoryquality。
TheessayonMachiavellibelongstoMacaulay’searlierperiod，andillustrateshismasteryofmaterialthatmightseemtolieoutsideofhisusualfield。ButhereintheItalyoftheRenaissance，asintheEnglandortheIndiawhichheknewatfirsthand，wehavethesamecharacteristicsimplificationandarrangementofmotivesandconditionsthatmakehisclearexpositionpossible，thesamedashandvividnessinbringinghometothereaderhisconceptionofagreatcharacterandagreatepoch。
Machiavelli1
[Footnote1：OriginallypublishedasareviewofatranslationofthecompleteworksofMachiavellibyJ。V。
Peries。]
Thosewhohaveattendedtothispracticeofourliterarytribunalarewellaware，that，bymeansofcertainlegalfictionssimilartothoseofWestminsterHall，wearefrequentlyenabledtotakecognizanceofcaseslyingbeyondthesphereofouroriginaljurisdiction。Weneedhardlysay，therefore，that，inthepresentinstance，M。PerierismerelyaRichardRoe，whowillnotbementionedinanysubsequentstageoftheproceedings，andwhosenameisusedforthesolepurposeofbringingMachiavelliintocourt。
Wedoubtwhetheranynameinliteraryhistorybesogenerallyodiousasthatofthemanwhosecharacterandwritingswenowproposetoconsider。
ThetermsinwhichheiscommonlydescribedwouldseemtoimpartthathewastheTempter，theEvilPrinciple，thediscovererofambitionandrevenge，theoriginalinventorofperjury，andthat，beforethepublicationofhisfatal\"Prince，\"therehadneverbeenahypocrite，atyrant，oratraitor，asimulatedvirtue，oraconvenientcrime。OnewritergravelyassuresusthatMauriceofSaxonylearnedallhisfraudulentpolicyfromthatexecrablevolume。
Anotherremarks，that，sinceitwastranslatedintoTurkish，thesultanshavebeenmoreaddictedthanformerlytothecustomofstranglingtheirbrothers。
LordLytteltonchargesthepoorFlorentinewiththemanifoldtreasonsofthehouseofGuise，andwiththeMassacreofSt。Bartholomew。SeveralauthorshavehintedthattheGunpowderPlotistobeprimarilyattributedtohisdoctrines，andseemtothinkthathiseffigyoughttobesubstitutedforthatofGuyFawkes，inthoseprocessionsbywhichtheingenuousyouthofEnglandannuallycommemoratethepreservationoftheThreeEstates。TheChurchofRomehaspronouncedinworksaccursedthings。Norhaveourowncountrymenbeenbackwardintestifyingtheiropinionofhismerits。
Outofhissurnametheyhavecoinedanepithetforaknave，andoutofhisChristiannameasynonymfortheDevil。
Itisindeedscarcelypossibleforanyperson，notwellacquaintedwiththehistoryandliteratureofItaly，toreadwithouthorrorandamazementthecelebratedtreatisewhichhasbroughtsomuchobloquyonthenameofMachiavelli。Suchadisplayofwickedness，nakedyetnotashamed，suchcool，judicious，scientificatrocity，seemedrathertobelongtoafiendthantothemostdepravedofmen。Principleswhichthemosthardenedruffianwouldscarcelyhinttohismosttrustedaccomplice，oravow，withoutthedisguiseofsomepalliatingsophism，eventohisownmind，areprofessedwithouttheslightestcircumlocution，andassumedasthefundamentalaxiomsofallpoliticalscience。
Itisnotstrangethatordinaryreadersshouldregardtheauthorofsuchabookasthemostdepravedandshamelessofhumanbeings。Wisemen，however，havealwaysbeeninclinedtolookwithgreatsuspicionontheangelsanddemonsofthemultitude；and，inthepresentinstance，severalcircumstanceshaveledevensuperficialobserverstoquestionthejusticeofthevulgardecision。ItisnotoriousthatMachiavelliwas，throughlife，azealousrepublican。Inthesameyearinwhichhecomposedhismanualof\"Kingcraft，\"
hesufferedimprisonmentandtortureinthecauseofpublicliberty。
Itseemsinconceivablethatthemartyroffreedomshouldhavedesignedlyactedastheapostleoftyranny。Severaleminentwritershave，therefore，endeavoredtodetectinthisunfortunateperformancesomeconcealedmeaning，moreconsistentwiththecharacterandconductoftheauthorthanthatwhichappearsatthefirstglance。
Onehypothesisis，thatMachiavelliintendedtopracticeontheyoungLorenzode’MediciafraudsimilartothatwhichSunderlandissaidtohaveemployedagainstourJamesII，andthatheurgedhispupiltoviolentandperfidiousmeasures，asthesurestmeansofacceleratingthemomentofdeliveranceandrevenge。Anothersupposition，whichLordBaconseemstocountenance，isthatthetreatisewasmerelyapieceofgraveirony，intendedtowarnnationsagainsttheartsofambitiousmen。Itwouldbeeasytoshowthatneitherofthesesolutionsisconsistentwithmanypassagesin\"ThePrince\"itself。
ButthemostdecisiverefutationisthatwhichisfurnishedbytheotherworksofMachiavelli。Inallthewritingswhichhegavetothepublic，andinallthosewhichtheresearchofeditorshas，inthecourseofthreecenturies，discovered；
inhiscomedies，designedfortheentertainmentofthemultitude；inhis\"CommentsonLivy，\"intendedfortheperusalofthemostenthusiasticpatriotsofFlorence；inhishistory，inscribedtooneofthemostamiableandestimableofthepopes；inhispublicdespatches；inhisprivatememoranda-
thesameobliquityofmoralprincipleforwhich\"ThePrince\"issoseverelycensuredismoreorlessdiscernible。Wedoubtwhetheritwouldbepossibletofind，inallthemanyvolumesofhiscompositions，asingleexpressionindicatingthatdissimulationandtreacheryhadeverstruckhimasdiscreditable。
Afterthis，itmayseemridiculoustosaythatweareacquaintedwithfewwritingswhichexhibitsomuchelevationofsentiment，sopureandwarmazealforthepublicgood，orsojustaviewofthedutiesandrightsofcitizens，asthoseofMachiavelli。Yetsoitis。Andevenfrom\"ThePrince\"itselfwecouldselectmanypassagesinsupportofthisremark。Toareaderofourageandcountry，thisinconsistencyis，atfirst，perfectlybewildering。
Thewholemanseemstobeanenigma，agrotesqueassemblageofincongruousqualities，selfishnessandgenerosity，crueltyandbenevolence，craftandsimplicity，abjectvillanyandromanticheroism。Onesentenceissuchasaveterandiplomatistwouldscarcelywriteincipherforthedirectionofhismostconfidentialspy：thenextseemstobeextractedfromathemecomposedbyanardentschool-boyonthedeathofLeonidas。Anactofdexterousperfidyandanactofpatrioticself-devotioncallforththesamekindandthesamedegreeofrespectfuladmiration。Themoralsensibilityofthewriterseemsatoncetobemorbidlyobtuseandmorbidlyacute。Twocharactersaltogetherdissimilarareunitedinhim。Theyarenotmerelyjoined，butinterwoven。
Theyarethewarpandthewoofofhismind；andtheircombination，likethatofthevariegatedthreadsinshotsilk，givestothewholetextureaglancingandever-changingappearance。Theexplanationmighthavebeeneasyifhehadbeenaveryweakoraveryaffectedman。Buthewasevidentlyneithertheonenortheother。Hisworksprove，beyondallcontradiction，thathisunderstandingwasstrong，histastepure，andhissenseoftheridiculousexquisitelykeen。
Thisisstrange，andyetthestrangestisbehind。Thereisnoreasonwhatevertothinkthatthoseamongstwhomhelivedsawanythingshockingorincongruousinhiswritings。Abundantproofsremainofthehighestimationinwhichbothhisworksandhispersonwereheldbythemostrespectableamonghiscontemporaries。ClementVIIpatronizedthepublicationofthoseverybookswhichtheCouncilofTrent，inthefollowinggeneration，pronouncedunfitfortheperusalofChristians。Somemembersofthedemocraticalpartycensuredthesecretaryfordedicating\"ThePrince\"toapatronwhoboretheunpopularnameofMedici。But，tothoseimmoraldoctrineswhichhavesincecalledforthsuchseverereprehensionsnoexceptionappearstohavebeentaken。
ThecryagainstthemwasfirstraisedbeyondtheAlps，andseemstohavebeenheardwithamazementinItaly。Theearliestassailant，asfarasweareaware，wasacountrymanofourown，CardinalPole。Theauthorofthe\"Anti-Machiavelli\"
wasaFrenchProtestant。
Itis，therefore，inthestateofmoralfeelingamongtheItaliansofthosetimesthatwemustseekfortherealexplanationofwhatseemsmostmysteriousinthelifeandwritingsofthisremarkableman。Asthisisasubjectwhichsuggestsmanyinterestingconsiderations，bothpoliticalandmetaphysical，weshallmakenoapologyfordiscussingitatsomelength。
DuringthegloomyanddisastrouscenturieswhichfollowedthedownfalloftheRomanEmpire，Italyhadpreserved，inafargreaterdegreethananyotherpartofwesternEurope，thetracesofancientcivilization。ThenightwhichdescendeduponherwasthenightofanArcticsummer。Thedawnbegantoreappearbeforethelastreflectionoftheprecedingsunsethadfadedfromthehorizon。ItwasinthetimeoftheFrenchMerovingiansandoftheSaxonHeptarchythatignoranceandferocityseemedtohavedonetheirworst。
YeteventhentheNeapolitanprovinces，recognizingtheauthorityoftheEasternEmpire，preservedsomethingofEasternknowledgeandrefinement。Rome，protectedbythesacredcharacterofherpontiffs，enjoyedatleastcomparativesecurityandrepose。EveninthoseregionswherethesanguinaryLombardshadfixedtheirmonarchy，therewasincomparablymoreofwealth，ofinformation，ofphysicalcomfort，andofsocialorder，thancouldbefoundinGaul，Britain，orGermany。
ThatwhichmostdistinguishedItalyfromtheneighboringcountrieswastheimportancewhichthepopulationofthetowns，ataveryearlyperiod，begantoacquire。Somecitieshadbeenfoundedinwildandremotesituations，byfugitiveswhohadescapedfromtherageofthebarbarians。SuchwereVeniceandGenoa，whichpreservedtheirfreedombytheirobscurity，tilltheybecameabletopreserveitbytheirpower。Othercitiesseemtohaveretained，underallthechangingdynastiesofinvaders，underOdoacerandTheodoric，NarsesandAlboin，themunicipalinstitutionswhichhadbeenconferredonthembytheliberalpolicyoftheGreatRepublic。Inprovinceswhichthecentralgovernmentwastoofeebleeithertoprotectortooppress，theseinstitutionsgraduallyacquiredstabilityandvigor。Thecitizens，defendedbytheirwalls，andgovernedbytheirownmagistratesandtheirownby-laws，enjoyedaconsiderableshareofrepublicanindependence。Thusastrongdemocraticspiritwascalledintoaction。TheCarlovingiansovereignsweretooimbeciletosubdueit。ThegenerouspolicyofOthoencouragedit。ItmightperhapshavebeensuppressedbyaclosecoalitionbetweentheChurchandtheempire。
Itwasfosteredandinvigoratedbytheirdisputes。Inthetwelfthcenturyitattaineditsfullvigor，and，afteralonganddoubtfulconflict，triumphedovertheabilitiesandcourageoftheSwabianprinces。
TheassistanceoftheecclesiasticalpowerhadgreatlycontributedtothesuccessoftheGuelfs。Thatsuccesswould，however，havebeenadoubtfulgood，ifitsonlyeffecthadbeentosubstituteamoralforapoliticalservitude，andtoexaltthepopesattheexpenseoftheCaesars。HappilythepublicmindofItalyhadlongcontainedtheseedsoffreeopinions，whichwerenowrapidlydevelopedbythegenialinfluenceoffreeinstitutions。ThepeopleofthatcountryhadobservedthewholemachineryoftheChurch，itssaintsanditsmiracles，itsloftypretensions，anditssplendidceremonial，itsworthlessblessingsanditsharmlesscurses，toolongandtoocloselytobeduped。
Theystoodbehindthescenesonwhichothersweregazingwithchildishaweandinterest。Theywitnessedthearrangementofthepulleys，andthemanufactureofthethunders。Theysawthenaturalfaces，andheardthenaturalvoices，oftheactors。DistantnationslookedonthePopeasthevicegerentoftheAlmighty，theoracleoftheAll-Wise，theumpirefromwhosedecisions，inthedisputeseitheroftheologiansorofkings，noChristianoughttoappeal。
TheItalianswereacquaintedwithallthefolliesofhisyouth，andwithallthedishonestartsbywhichhehadattainedpower。TheyknewhowoftenhehademployedthekeysoftheChurchtoreleasehimselffromthemostsacredengagements，anditswealthtopamperhismistressesandnephews。Thedoctrinesandritesoftheestablishedreligiontheytreatedwithdecentreverence。But，thoughtheystillcalledthemselvesCatholics，theyhadceasedtobepapists。ThosespiritualarmswhichcarriedterrorintothepalacesandcampsoftheproudestsovereignsexcitedonlycontemptintheimmediateneighborhoodoftheVatican。Alexander，whenhecommandedourHenryII
tosubmittothelashbeforethetombofarebellioussubject，washimselfanexile。TheRomans，apprehendingthatheentertaineddesignsagainsttheirliberties，haddrivenhimfromtheircity；and，thoughhesolemnlypromisedtoconfinehimselfforthefuturetohisspiritualfunctions，theystillrefusedtoreadmithim。
IneveryotherpartofEurope，alargeandpowerfulprivilegedclasstrampledonthepeople，anddefiedthegovernment。But，inthemostflourishingpartsofItaly，thefeudalnobleswerereducedtocomparativeinsignificance。
Insomedistrictstheytookshelterundertheprotectionofthepowerfulcommonwealthswhichtheywereunabletooppose，andgraduallysankintothemassofburghers。Inotherplaces，theypossessedgreatinfluence；
butitwasaninfluencewidelydifferentfromthatwhichwasexercisedbythearistocracyofanytrans-Alpinekingdom。Theywerenotpettyprinces，buteminentcitizens。Insteadofstrengtheningtheirfastnessesamongthemountains，theyembellishedtheirpalacesinthemarket-place。ThestateofsocietyintheNeapolitandominions，andinsomepartsoftheecclesiasticalState，morenearlyresembledthatwhichexistedinthegreatmonarchiesofEurope。ButthegovernmentsofLombardyandTuscany，throughalltheirrevolutions，preservedadifferentcharacter。Apeople，whenassembledinatown，isfarmoreformidabletoitsrulersthanwhendispersedoverawideextentofcountry。ThemostarbitraryoftheCaesarsfounditnecessarytofeedanddiverttheinhabitantsoftheirunwieldycapitalattheexpenseoftheprovinces。ThecitizensofMadridhavemorethanoncebesiegedtheirsovereigninhisownpalace，andextortedfromhimthemosthumiliatingconcessions。ThesultanshaveoftenbeencompelledtopropitiatethefuriousrabbleofConstantinoplewiththeheadofanunpopularvizier。Fromthesamecause，therewasacertaintingeofdemocracyinthemonarchiesandaristocraciesofnorthernItaly。
Thusliberty，partiallyindeedandtransiently，revisitedItaly；andwithlibertycamecommerceandempire，scienceandtaste，allthecomfortsandalltheornamentsoflife。TheCrusades，fromwhichtheinhabitantsofothercountriesgainednothingbutrelicsandwounds，broughttotherisingcommonwealthsoftheAdriaticandTyrrheneseasalargeincreaseofwealth，dominion，andknowledge。ThemoralandthegeographicalpositionofthosecommonwealthsenabledthemtoprofitalikebythebarbarismoftheWestandbythecivilizationoftheEast。Italianshipscoveredeverysea。Italianfactoriesroseoneveryshore。ThetablesofItalianmoney-changersweresetineverycity。
Manufacturesflourished。Bankswereestablished。Theoperationsofthecommercialmachinewerefacilitatedbymanyusefulandbeautifulinventions。
WedoubtwhetheranycountryofEurope，ourownexcepted，hasatthepresenttimereachedsohighapointofwealthandcivilizationassomepartsofItalyhadattained400yearsago。Historiansrarelydescendtothosedetailsfromwhichalonetherealestateofacommunitycanbecollected。Henceposterityistoooftendeceivedbythevaguehyperbolesofpoetsandrhetoricians，whomistakethesplendorofacourtforthehappinessofapeople。Fortunately，JohnVillanihasgivenusanexampleandpreciseaccountofthestateofFlorenceintheearlypartofthefourteenthcentury。
Therevenueoftherepublicamountedto300，000florins，asumwhich，allowingforthedepreciationofthepreciousmetals，wasatleastequivalenttopounds600，000sterling-alargersumthanEnglandandIreland，twocenturiesago，yieldedannuallytoElizabeth。Themanufactureofwoolaloneemployed200
factoriesand30，000workmen。Theclothannuallyproducedsold，atanaverage，for1，200，000florins-asumfullyequal，inexchangeablevalue，topounds2，500，000ofourmoney。Fourhundredthousandflorinswereannuallycoined。Eightybanksconductedthecommercialoperations，notofFlorenceonly，butofallEurope。ThetransactionsoftheseestablishmentsweresometimesofamagnitudewhichmaysurpriseeventhecontemporariesoftheBaringsandtheRothschilds。TwohousesadvancedtoEdwardIII
ofEnglandupwardsof300，000marks，atatimewhenthemarkcontainedmoresilverthanfiftyshillingsofthepresentday，andwhenthevalueofsilverwasmorethanquadrupleofwhatitnowis。Thecity，anditsenvironscontained170，000inhabitants。Inthevariousschoolsabout10，000childrenweretaughttoread，1，200studiedarithmetic，600receivedalearnededucation。
Theprogressofelegantliteratureandofthefineartswasproportionedtothatofthepublicprosperity。UnderthedespoticsuccessorsofAugustusallthefieldsoftheintellecthadbeenturnedintoaridwastes，stillmarkedoutbyformalboundaries，stillretainingthetracesofoldcultivation，butyieldingneitherflowersnorfruit。Thedelugeofbarbarismcame。Itsweptawayallthelandmarks。Itobliteratedallthesignsofformertillage。But，itfertilizedwhileitdevastated。Whenitreceded，thewildernesswasasthegardenofGod，rejoicingoneveryside，laughing，clappingitshands，pouringforth，inspontaneousabundance，everythingbrilliantorfragrantornourishing。
Anewlanguage，characterizedbysimplesweetnessandsimpleenergy，hadattainedperfection。Notongueeverfurnishedmoregorgeousandvividtintstopoetry；
norwasitlongbeforeapoetappearedwhoknewhowtoemploythem。
Earlyinthefourteenthcenturycameforth\"TheDivineComedy，\"beyondcomparisonthegreatestworkofimaginationwhichhadappearedsincethepoemsofHomer。ThefollowinggenerationproducedindeednosecondDante，butitwaseminentlydistinguishedbygeneralintellectualactivity。
ThestudyoftheLatinwritershadneverbeenwhollyneglectedinItaly。
ButPetrarchintroducedamoreprofound，liberal，andelegantscholarship，hadcommunicatedtohiscountrymenthatenthusiasmfortheliterature，thehistory，andtheantiquitiesofRome，whichdividedhisownheartwithafrigidmistressandamorefrigidmuse。BoccaccioturnedtheirattentiontothemoresublimeandgracefulmodelsofGreece。
Fromthistime，theadmirationoflearningandgeniusbecamealmostanidolatryamongthepeopleofItaly。Kingsandrepublics，cardinalsanddoges，viedwitheachotherinhonoringandflatteringPetrarch。EmbassiesfromrivalStatessolicitedthehonorofhisinstructions。HiscoronationagitatedtheCourtofNaplesandthepeopleofRomeasmuchasthemostimportantpoliticaltransactioncouldhavedone。Tocollectbooksandantiques，tofoundprofessorships，topatronizemenoflearning，becamealmostuniversalfashionsamongthegreat。Thespiritofliteraryresearchallieditselftothatofcommercialenterprise。EveryplacetowhichthemerchantprincesofFlorenceextendedtheirgigantictraffic，fromthebazarsoftheTigristothemonasteriesoftheClyde，wasransackedformedalsandmanuscripts。Architecture，painting，andsculptureweremunificentlyencouraged。Indeed，itwouldbedifficulttonameanItalianofeminence，duringtheperiodofwhichwespeak，who，whatevermayhavebeenhisgeneralcharacter，didnotatleastaffectaloveoflettersandofthearts。
Knowledgeandpublicprosperitycontinuedtoadvancetogether。BothattainedtheirmeridianintheageofLorenzotheMagnificent。WecannotrefrainfromquotingthesplendidpassageinwhichtheTuscanThucydidesdescribesthestateofItalyatthatperiod。\"Ridottatuttainsommapaceetranquillitacoltivatanonmenoneluogtipiumontusoiepiusterilichenellepianureeregionipiufertili，nesottopostaadaltroimperiochedesuoimedesimi，nonsoloeraabbondantissimad’abitatoriediricchezze；
maillustratasommamentedallamagnificenzadimoltiprincipi，dallosplendoredimoltenobilissimeebellissimecitta，dallasediaemaestadellareligione，fiorivad’uominiprestantissiminell’amministrazionedellecosepubbliche，ed’ingegnimoltonobiliintuttelescienze，edinqualunqueartepreclaraedindustriosa。\"2
Whenweperusethisjustandsplendiddescription，wecanscarcelypersuadeourselvesthatwearereadingoftimesinwhichtheannalsofEnglandandFrancepresentusonlywithafrightfulspectacleofpoverty，barbarity，andignorance。Fromtheoppressionsofilliteratemasters，andthesufferingsofadegradedpeasantry，itisdelightfultoturntotheopulentandenlightenedStatesofItaly，tothevastandmagnificentcities，theports，thearsenals，thevillas，themuseums，thelibraries，themartsfilledwitheveryarticleofcomfortorluxury，thefactoriesswarmingwithartisans，theApenninescoveredwithrichcultivationuptotheirverysummits，thePowaftingtheharvestsofLombardytothegranariesofVenice，andcarryingbackthesilksofBengalandthefursofSiberiatothepalacesofMilan。Withpeculiarpleasureeverycultivatedmindmustreposeonthefair，thehappy，thegloriousFlorence，thehallswhichrangwiththemirthofPulci，thecellwheretwinkledthemidnightlampofPolitian，thestatuesonwhichtheyoungeyeofMichaelAngeloglaredwiththefrenzyofakindredinspiration，thegardensinwhichLorenzomeditatedsomesparklingsongfortheMay-daydanceoftheEtrurianvirgins。
Alasforthebeautifulcity！Alasforthewitandthelearning，thegeniusandthelove！
[Footnote2：\"Enjoyingtheutmostpeaceandtranquillity，cultivatedaswellinthemostmountainousandbarrenplacesasintheplainsandmostfertileregions，andnotsubjecttoanyotherdominionthanthatofitsownpeople，itnotonlyoverflowedwithinhabitantsandwithriches，butwashighlyadornedbythemagnificenceofmanyprinces，bythesplendorofmanyrenownedandbeautifulcities，bytheabodeandmajestyofreligion，andaboundedinmenwhoexcelledintheadministrationofpublicaffairsandinmindsmosteminentinallthesciencesandineverynobleandusefulart。\"-Guicciardini，\"HistoryofItaly，\"BookI。，trans。Montague。]
\"Ledonne，eicavalieri，gliaffanniegliagi，Chene’nvogliavaamoreecortesiaLadoveicuorsonfattisimalvagi。\"3
[Footnote3：\"Theladiesandtheknights，thetoilsandsportstowhichloveandcourtesystirredourdesiretherewhereallheartshavegrownsoevil。\"Dante，\"Purgatorio，\"
Canto14，ll。
109-111。]
AtimewasathandwhenallthesevenvialsoftheApocalypseweretobepouredforthandshakenoutoverthosepleasantcountries-atimeofslaughter，famine，beggary，infamy，slavery，despair。
PartII
IntheItalianStates，asinmanynaturalbodies，untimelydecrepitudewasthepenaltyofprecociousmaturity。Theirearlygreatness，andtheirearlydecline，areprincipallytobeattributedtothesamecause-thepreponderancewhichthetownsacquiredinthepoliticalsystem。
Inacommunityofhuntersorofshepherdseverymaneasilyandnecessarilybecomesasoldier。Hisordinaryavocationsareperfectlycompatiblewithallthedutiesofmilitaryservice。Howeverremotemaybetheexpeditiononwhichheisbound，hefindsiteasytotransportwithhimthestockfromwhichhederiveshissubsistence。Thewholepeopleinanarmy，thewholeyearamarch。SuchwasthestateofsocietywhichfacilitatedthegiganticconquestsofAttilaandTamerlane。
Butapeoplewhichsubsistsbythecultivationoftheearthisinaverydifferentsituation。Thehusbandmanisboundtothesoilonwhichhelabors。
Alongcampaignwouldberuinoustohim。Stillhispursuitsaresuchastogivehisframeboththeactiveandthepassivestrengthnecessarytoasoldier。
Nordothey，atleastintheinfancyofagriculturalscience，demandhisuninterruptedattention。Atparticulartimesoftheyearheisalmostwhollyunemployed，andcan，withoutinjurytohimself，affordthetimenecessaryforashortexpedition。
ThusthelegionsofRomeweresuppliedduringitsearlierwars。Theseasonduringwhichthefieldsdidnotrequirethepresenceofthecultivatorssufficedforashortinroadandabattle。Theseoperations，toofrequentlyinterruptedtoproducedecisiveresults，yetservedtokeepupamongthepeopleadegreeofdisciplineandcouragewhichrenderedthemnotonlysecurebutformidable。
ThearchersandbillmenoftheMiddleAges，who，withprovisionsforfortydaysattheirback，leftthefieldsforthecamp，weretroopsofthesamedescription。
Butwhencommerceandmanufacturesbegintoflourish，agreatchangetakesplace。Thesedentaryhabitsofthedeskandtheloomrendertheexertionsandhardshipsofwarinsupportable。Thebusinessoftradersandartisansrequirestheirconstantpresenceandattention。Insuchacommunitythereislittlesuperfluoustime；butthereisgenerallymuchsuperfluousmoney。Somemembersofthesocietyare，therefore，hiredtorelievetherestfromataskinconsistentwiththeirhabitsandengagements。
ThehistoryofGreeceis，inthis，asinmanyotherrespects，thebestcommentaryonthehistoryofItaly。FivehundredyearsbeforetheChristianerathecitizensoftherepublicsroundtheAegeanSeaformedperhapsthefinestmilitiathateverexisted。Aswealthandrefinementadvanced，thesystemunderwentagradualalteration。TheIonianStateswerethefirstinwhichcommerceandtheartswerecultivated，andthefirstinwhichtheancientdisciplinedecayed。WithineightyyearsafterthebattleofPlataea，mercenarytroopswereeverywhereplyingforbattlesandsieges。InthetimeofDemosthenes，itwasscarcelypossibletopersuadeorcompeltheAthenianstoenlistforforeignservice。ThelawsofLycurgusprohibitedtradeandmanufactures。TheSpartans，therefore，continuedtoformanationalforcelongaftertheirneighborshadbeguntohiresoldiers。Buttheirmilitaryspiritdeclinedwiththeirsingularinstitutions。InthesecondcenturybeforeChrist，Greececontainedonlyonenationofwarriors，thesavagehighlandersofAetolia，whoweresomegenerationsbehindtheircountrymenincivilizationandintelligence。
AllthecauseswhichproducedtheseeffectsamongtheGreeksactedstillmorestronglyonthemodernItalians。InsteadofapowerlikeSparta，initsnaturewarlike，theyhadamongstthemanecclesiasticalstate，initsnaturepacific。Wheretherearenumerousslaves，everyfreemanisinducedbythestrongestmotivestofamiliarizehimselfwiththeuseofarms。ThecommonwealthsofItalydidnot，likethoseofGreece，swarmwiththousandsofthesehouseholdenemies。Lastly，themodeinwhichmilitaryoperationswereconductedduringtheprosperoustimesofItalywaspeculiarlyunfavorabletotheformationofanefficientmilitia。Mencoveredwithironfromheadtofoot，armedwithponderouslances，andmountedonhorsesofthelargestbreed，wereconsideredascomposingthestrengthofanarmy。
Theinfantrywasregardedascomparativelyworthless，andwasneglectedtillitbecamereallyso。ThesetacticsmaintainedtheirgroundforcenturiesinmostpartsofEurope。Thatfoot-soldierscouldwithstandthechargeofheavycavalrywasthoughtutterlyimpossible，till，towardsthecloseofthefifteenthcentury，therudemountaineersofSwitzerlanddissolvedthespell，andastoundedthemostexperiencedgeneralsbyreceivingthedreadedshockonanimpenetrableforestofpikes。
TheuseoftheGrecianspear，theRomansword，orthemodernbayonet，mightbeacquiredwithcomparativeease。Butnothingshortofthedailyexerciseofyearscouldtrainthemanatarmstosupporthisponderouspanoply，andmanagehisunwieldyweapon。ThroughoutEuropethismostimportantbranchofwarbecameaseparateprofession。BeyondtheAlps，indeed，thoughaprofession，itwasnotgenerallyatrade。Itwasthedutyandtheamusementofalargeclassofcountrygentlemen。Itwastheservicebywhichtheyheldtheirlands，andthediversionbywhich，intheabsenceofmentalresources，theybeguiledtheirleisure。ButinthenorthernStatesofItaly，aswehavealreadyremarked，thegrowingpowerofthecities，whereithadnotexterminatedthisorderofmen，hadcompletelychangedtheirhabits。
Here，therefore，thepracticeofemployingmercenariesbecameuniversal，atatimewhenitwasalmostunknowninothercountries。
Whenwarbecomesthetradeofaseparateclasstheleastdangerouscourselefttoagovernmentistoformthatclassintoastandingarmy。ItisscarcelypossiblethatmencanpasstheirlivesintheserviceofoneState，withoutfeelingsomeinterestinitsgreatness。Itsvictoriesaretheirvictories。
Itsdefeatsaretheirdefeats。Thecontractlosessomethingofitsmercantilecharacter。
Theservicesofthesoldierareconsideredastheeffectsofpatrioticzeal，hispayasthetributeofnationalgratitude。Tobetraythepowerwhichemployshim，tobeevenremissinitsservice，areinhiseyesthemostatrociousanddegradingofcrimes。
WhentheprincesandcommonwealthsofItalybegantousehiredtroops，theirwisestcoursewouldhavebeentoformseparatemilitaryestablishments。
Unhappilythiswasnotdone。ThemercenarywarriorsofthePeninsula，insteadofbeingattachedtotheserviceofdifferentpowers，wereregardedasthecommonpropertyofall。TheconnectionbetweentheStateanditsdefenderswasreducedtothemostsimpleandnakedtraffic。Theadventurerbroughthishorse，hisweapons，hisstrength，andhisexperience，intothemarket。WhethertheKingofNaplesortheDukeofMilan，thePopeortheSignoryofFlorence，struckthebargain，wastohimamatterofperfectindifference。Hewasforthehighestwagesandthelongestterm。Whenthecampaignforwhichhehadcontractedwasfinished，therewasneitherlawnorpunctiliotopreventhimfrominstantlyturninghisarmsagainsthislatemasters。
Thesoldierwasaltogetherdisjoinedfromthecitizenandfromthesubject。
Thenaturalconsequencesfollowed。Lefttotheconductofmenwhoneitherlovedthosewhomtheydefended，norhatedthosewhomtheyopposed，whowereoftenboundbystrongertiestothearmyagainstwhichtheyfoughtthantotheStatewhichtheyserved，wholostbytheterminationoftheconflict，andgainedbyitsprolongation，warcompletelychangeditscharacter。Everymancameintothefieldofbattleimpressedwiththeknowledge，that，inafewdays，hemightbetakingthepayofthepoweragainstwhichhewasthenemployed，andfightingbythesideofhisenemiesagainsthisassociates。
Thestrongestinterestsandthestrongestfeelingsconcurredtomitigatethehostilityofthosewhohadlatelybeenbrethreninarms，andwhomightsoonbebrethreninarmsoncemore。Theircommonprofessionwasabondofunionnottobeforgotten，evenwhentheywereengagedintheserviceofcontendingparties。Henceitwasthatoperations，languidandindecisivebeyondanyrecordedinhistory，marchesandcountermarches，pillagingexpeditionsandblockades，bloodlesscapitulationsandequallybloodlesscombats，makeupthemilitaryhistoryofItalyduringthecourseofnearlytwocenturies。
Mightarmiesfightfromsunrisetosunset。Agreatvictoryiswon。Thousandsofprisonersaretaken，andhardlyalifeislost。Apitchedbattleseemstohavebeenreallylessdangerousthananordinaryciviltumult。
Couragewasnownolongernecessary，eventothemilitarycharacter。
Mengrewoldincamps，andacquiredthehighestrenownbytheirwarlikeachievements，withoutbeingoncerequiredtofaceseriousdanger。Thepoliticalconsequencesaretoowellknown。Therichestandmostenlightenedpartoftheworldwasleftundefendedtotheassaultsofeverybarbarousinvader，tothebrutalityofSwitzerland，theinsolenceofFrance，andthefiercerapacityofAragon。Themoraleffectswhichfollowedfromthisstateofthingswerestillmoreremarkable。
AmongsttherudenationswhichlaybeyondtheAlps，valorwasabsolutelyindispensable。Withoutitnonecouldbeeminent，fewcouldbesecure。
Cowardicewas，therefore，naturallyconsideredasthefoulestreproach。
AmongthepolishedItalians，enrichedbycommerce，governedbylaw，andpassionatelyattachedtoliterature，everythingwasdonebysuperiorityofintelligence。Theirverywars，morepacificthanthepeaceoftheirneighbors，requiredrathercivilthanmilitaryqualifications。Hence，whilecouragewasthepointofhonorinothercountries，ingenuitybecamethepointofhonorinItaly。
Fromtheseprincipleswerededuced，byprocessesstrictlyanalogous，twooppositesystemsoffashionablemorality。ThroughthegreaterpartofEurope，theviceswhichpeculiarlybelongtotimiddispositions，andwhicharethenaturaldefenceofweakness，fraud，andhypocrisy，havealwaysbeenmostdisreputable。Ontheotherhand，theexcessesofhaughtyanddaringspiritshavebeentreatedwithindulgence，andevenwithrespect。TheItaliansregardedwithcorrespondinglenitythosecrimeswhichrequireself-command，address，quickobservation，fertileinvention，andprofoundknowledgeofhumannature。
SuchaprinceasourHenryVwouldhavebeentheidoloftheNorth。
Thefolliesofhisyouth，theselfishambitionofhismanhood，theLollardsroastedatslowfires，theprisonersmassacredonthefieldofbattle，theexpiringleaseofpriestcraftrenewedforanothercentury，thedreadfullegacyofacauselessandhopelesswarbequeathedtoapeoplewhohadnointerestinitsevent-
everythingisforgottenbutthevictoryofAgincourt。FrancisSforza，ontheotherhand，wasthemodelofItalianheroes。Hemadehisemployersandhisrivalsalikehistools。Hefirstoverpoweredhisopenenemiesbythehelpoffaithlessallies：hethenarmedhimselfagainsthisallieswiththespoilstakenfromhisenemies。Byhisincomparabledexterity，heraisedhimselffromtheprecariousanddependentsituationofamilitaryadventurertothefirstthroneofItaly。Tosuchamanmuchwasforgivenhollowfriendship，ungenerousenmity，violatedfaith。Sucharetheoppositeerrorswhichmencommit，whentheirmoralityisnotascience，butataste，whentheyabandoneternalprinciplesforaccidentalassociations。
Wehaveillustratedourmeaningbyaninstancetakenfromhistory。Wewillselectanotherfromfiction。Othellomurdershiswife；hegivesordersforthemurderofhislieutenant；heendsbymurderinghimself。YetheneverlosestheesteemandaffectionofNorthernreaders。Hisintrepidandardentspiritredeemseverything。Theunsuspectingconfidencewithwhichhelistenstohisadviser，theagonywithwhichheshrinksfromthethoughtofshame，thetempestofpassionwithwhichhecommitshiscrimes，andthehaughtyfearlessnesswithwhichheavowsthem，giveanextraordinaryinteresttohischaracter。Iago，onthecontrary，istheobjectofuniversalloathing。
ManyareinclinedtosuspectthatShakespearehasbeenseducedintoanexaggerationunusualwithhim，andhasdrawnamonsterwhohasnoarchetypeinhumannature。Now，wesuspectthatanItalianaudienceinthefifteenthcenturywouldhavefeltverydifferently。Othellowouldhaveinspirednothingbutdetestationandcontempt。Thefollywithwhichhetruststhefriendlyprofessionsofamanwhosepromotionhehadobstructed，thecredulitywithwhichhetakesunsupportedassertions，andtrivialcircumstances，forunanswerableproofs，theviolencewithwhichhesilencestheexculpationtilltheexculpationcanonlyaggravatehismisery，wouldhaveexcitedtheabhorrenceanddisgustofhisspectators。TheconductofIagotheywouldassuredlyhavecondemned，buttheywouldhavecondemneditaswecondemnthatofhisvictim。Somethingofinterestandrespectwouldhavemingledwiththeirdisapprobation。
Thereadinessofthetraitor’swit，theclearnessofhisjudgment，theskillwithwhichhepenetratesthedispositionsofothers，andconcealshisown，wouldhaveinsuredtohimacertainportionoftheiresteem。
SowidewasthedifferencebetweentheItaliansandtheirneighbors。
AsimilardifferenceexistedbetweentheGreeksofthesecondcenturybeforeChrist，andtheirmasters，theRomans。Theconquerors，braveandresolute，faithfultotheirengagements，andstronglyinfluencedbyreligiousfeelings，were，atthesametime，ignorant，arbitrary，andcruel。Withthevanquishedpeopleweredepositedalltheart，thescience，andtheliteratureoftheWesternworld。Inpoetry，inphilosophy，inpainting，inarchitecture，insculpture，theyhadnorivals。Theirmannerswerepolished，theirperceptionsacute，theirinventionready；theyweretolerant，affable，humane；butofcourageandsinceritytheywerealmostutterlydestitute。Everyrudecenturionconsoledhimselfforhisintellectualinferiority，byremarkingthatknowledgeandtasteseemedonlytomakemenatheists，cowardsandslaves。Thedistinctionlongcontinuedtobestronglymarked，andfurnishedandadmirablesubjectforthefiercesarcasmsofJuvenal。
ThecitizenofanItaliancommonwealthwastheGreekofthetimeofJuvenalandtheGreekofthetimeofPericles，joinedinone。Liketheformer，hewastimidandpliable，artfulandmean。But，likethelatter，hehadacountry。Itsindependenceandprosperityweredeartohim。Ifhischaracterweredegradedbysomebasecrimes，itwas，ontheotherhand，ennobledbypublicspiritandbyanhonorableambition。
Avicesanctionedbythegeneralopinionismerelyavice。Theevilterminatesinitself。Avicecondemnedbythegeneralopinionproducesaperniciouseffectonthewholecharacter。Theformerisalocalmalady，thelatteraconstitutionaltaint。Whenthereputationoftheoffenderislost，he，too，oftenflingstheremainsofhisvirtueafteritindespair。TheHighlandgentleman，who，acenturyago，livedbytakingblackmailfromhisneighbors，committedthesamecrimeforwhichWildwasaccompaniedtoTyburnbythehuzzasof200，000people。ButtherecanbenodoubtthathewasamuchlessdepravedmanthanWild。ThedeedforwhichMrs。Brownriggwashanged，sinksintonothingwhencomparedwiththeconductoftheRomanwhotreatedthepublictoonehundredpairsofgladiators。YetweshouldgreatlywrongsuchaRomanifwesupposedthathisdispositionwasascruelasthatofMrs。
Brownrigg。Inourowncountry，awomanforfeitsherplaceinsocietybywhat，inaman，istoocommonlyconsideredasanhonorabledistinction，andatworstasavenialerror。Theconsequenceisnotorious。Themoralprincipleofawomanisfrequentlymoreimpairedbyasinglelapsefromvirtuethanthatofamanbytwentyyearsofintrigues。Classicalantiquitywouldfurnishuswithinstancesstronger，ifpossible，thanthosetowhichwehavereferred。
Wemustapplythisprincipletothecasebeforeus。Habitsofdissimulationandfalsehood，nodoubt，markamanofourageandcountryasutterlyworthlessandabandoned。ButitbynomeansfollowsthatasimilarjudgmentwouldbejustinthecaseofanItalianintheMiddleAges。Onthecontrary，wefrequentlyfindthosefaultswhichweareaccustomedtoconsiderascertainindicationsofamindaltogetherdepraved，incompanywithgreatandgoodqualities，withgenerosity，withbenevolence，withdisinterestedness。
Fromsuchastateofsociety，Palamedes，intheadmirabledialogueofHume，mighthavedrawnillustrationsofhistheoryasstrikingasanyofthosewithwhichFourlifurnishedhim。Thesearenot，wewellknow，thelessonswhichhistoriansaregenerallymostcarefultoteach，orreadersmostwillingtolearn。
Buttheyarenotthereforeuseless。HowPhilipdisposedhistroopsatChaeronea，whereHannibalcrossedtheAlps，whetherMaryblewupDarnley，orSiquiershotCharlesXII，andthethousandotherquestionsofthesamedescription，areinthemselvesunimportant。Theinquirymayamuseus，butthedecisionleavesusnowiser。Healonereadshistoryaright，who，observinghowpowerfullycircumstancesinfluencethefeelingsandopinionsofmen，howoftenvicespassintovirtues，andparadoxesintoaxioms，learnstodistinguishwhatisaccidentalandtransitoryinhumannature，fromwhatisessentialandimmutable。
Inthisrespect，nohistorysuggestsmoreimportantreflectionsthanthatoftheTuscanandLombardcommonwealths。ThecharacteroftheItalianstatesmanseems，atfirstsight，acollectionofcontradictions，aphantomasmonstrousastheportressofhellinMilton，halfdivinity，halfsnake，majesticandbeautifulabove，grovellingandpoisonousbelow。Weseeamanwhosethoughtsandwordshavenoconnectionwitheachother，whoneverhesitatesatanoathwhenhewishestoseduce，whoneverwantsapretextwhenheisinclinedtobetray。Hiscrueltiesspring，notfromtheheatofblood，ortheinsanityofuncontrolledpower，butfromdeepandcoolmeditation。Hispassions，likewell-trainedtroops，areimpetuousbyrule，andintheirmostheadstrongfuryneverforgetthedisciplinetowhichtheyhavebeenaccustomed。Hiswholesoulisoccupiedwithvastandcomplicatedschemesofambition，yethisaspectandlanguageexhibitnothingbutphilosophicalmoderation。Hatredandrevengeeatintohisheart；yeteverylookisacordialsmile，everygestureafamiliarcaress。Heneverexcitesthesuspicionofhisadversariesbypettyprovocations。Hispurposeisdisclosed，onlywhenitisaccomplished。
Hisfaceisunruffled，hisspeechiscourteous，tillvigilanceislaidasleep，tillavitalpointisexposed，tillasureaimistaken；andthenhestrikesforthefirstandlasttime。Militarycourage，theboastofthesottishGerman，ofthefrivolousandpratingFrenchman，oftheromanticandarrogantSpaniard，heneitherpossessesnorvalues。Heshunsdanger，notbecauseheisinsensibletoshame，butbecause，inthesocietyinwhichhelives，timidityhasceasedtobeshameful。Todoaninjuryopenlyis，inhisestimation，aswickedastodoitsecretly，andfarlessprofitable。Withhimthemosthonorablemeansarethosewhicharethesurest，thespeediest，andthedarkest。Hecannotcomprehendhowamanshouldscrupletodeceivethosewhomhedoesnotscrupletodestroy。Hewouldthinkitmadnesstodeclareopenhostilitiesagainstrivalswhomhemightstabinafriendlyembrace，orpoisoninaconsecratedwafer。
Yetthisman，blackwiththeviceswhichweconsiderasmostloathsome，traitor，hypocrite，coward，assassin，wasbynomeansdestituteevenofthosevirtueswhichwegenerallyconsiderasindicatingsuperiorelevationofcharacter。Incivilcourage，inperseverance，inpresenceofmind，thosebarbarouswarriors，whowereforemostinthebattleorthebreach，werefarhisinferiors。Eventhedangerswhichheavoidedwithacautionalmostpusillanimousneverconfusedhisperceptions，neverparalyzedhisinventivefaculties，neverwrungoutonesecretfromhissmoothtongueandhisinscrutablebrow。Thoughadangerousenemy，andastillmoredangerousaccomplice，hecouldbeajustandbeneficentruler。Withsomuchunfairnessinhispolicy，therewasanextraordinarydegreeoffairnessinhisintellect。
Indifferenttotruthinthetransactionsoflife，hewashonestlydevotedtotruthintheresearchesofspeculation。Wantoncrueltywasnotinhisnature。
Onthecontrary，wherenopoliticalobjectwasatstake，hisdispositionwassoftandhumane。Thesusceptibilityofhisnervesandtheactivityofhisimaginationinclinedhimtosympathizewiththefeelingsofothers，andtodelightinthecharitiesandcourtesiesofsociallife。Perpetuallydescendingtoactionswhichmightseemtomarkaminddiseasedthroughallitsfaculties，hehadneverthelessanexquisitesensibility，bothforthenaturalandthemoralsublime，foreverygracefulandeveryloftyconception。Habitsofpettyintrigueanddissimulationmighthaverenderedhimincapableofgreatgeneralviews，butthattheexpandingeffectofhisphilosophicalstudiescounteractedthenarrowingtendency。Hehadthekeenestenjoymentofwit，eloquence，andpoetry。Thefineartsprofitedalikebytheseverityofhisjudgment，andbytheliberalityofhispatronage。TheportraitsofsomeoftheremarkableItaliansofthosetimesareperfectlyinharmonywiththisdescription。Ampleandmajesticforeheads；browsstronganddark，butnotfrowning；eyesofwhichthecalm，fullgaze，whileitexpressesnothing，seemstodiscerneverything；
cheekspalewiththoughtandsedentaryhabits；lipsformedwithfemininedelicacy，butcompressedwithmorethanmasculinedecision-markoutmenatonceenterprisingandtimid，menequallyskilledindetectingthepurposesofothers，inandconcealingtheirown，menwhomusthavebeenformidableenemiesandunsafeallies，butmen，atthesametime，whosetempersweremildandequable，andwhopossessedanamplitudeandsubtletyofintellectwhichwouldhaverenderedthememinenteitherinactiveorincontemplativelife，andfittedthemeithertogovernortoinstructmankind。
Everyageandeverynationhascertaincharacteristicvices，whichprevailalmostuniversally，whichscarcelyanypersonscruplestoavow，andwhichevenrigidmoralistsbutfaintlycensure。Succeedinggenerationschangethefashionoftheirmorals，withthefashionoftheirhatsandtheircoaches；