The’disposition’includessensibilitytowhathecalls’tutelarymotives’
motives，thatis，whichdeteramanfromsuchconductasgenerallyproducesmischievousconsequences。Nomotivecanbeinvariably，thoughsome，especiallythemotiveofgoodwill，andinaminordegreethoseof’amity’anda’loveofreputation，’aregenerally，ontherightside。Thelegislatorhastoreinforcethese’tutelarymotives’by’artificialtutelarymotives，’andmainlybyappealingtothe’loveofease，’thatis，bymakingmischievousconductmoredifficult，andto’self-preservation，’thatis，bymakingitmoredangerous。49*
Hehasthereforetomeasuretheforcebywhichthesemotiveswillbeopposed；
or，inotherwords，the’strengthofthetemptation。’Nowthemoredepravedaman’sdisposition，theweakerthetemptationwhichwillseducehimtocrime。
Consequentlyifanactshowsdepravity，itwillrequireastrongercounter-motiveoramoreseverepunishment，asthedispositionindicatedismoremischievous。
Anact，forexample，whichimpliesdeliberationprovesagreaterinsensibilitytothesesocialmotiveswhich，asBenthamremarks，50*determinethe’generaltenorofaman’slife，’howeverdepravedhemaybe。Thelegislatorisguidedsolelyby’utility，’oraimsatmaximisinghappinesswithoutreferencetoitsquality。Still，sofarasactionimpliesdisposition，hehastocOnsiderthedepravityasasourceofmischief。Thelegislatorwholookssolelyatthemoralqualityimpliediswrong；and，ifguidedsolelybyhissympathies，hasnomeasurefortheamountofpunishmenttobeinflicted。Theseconsiderationswillenableustoseewhatisthepropermeasureofresentment。51*
Thedoctrineoftheneutralityor’unmorality’ofmotiveisthussufficientlyclear。Bentham’swholeaimistourgethatthecriterionofmoralityisgivenbytheconsequencesofactions。Tosaytheconductisgoodorbadistosayinotherwordsthatitproducesabalanceofpleasureorpain。Tomakethecriterionindependent，orescapetheviciouscircle，wemustadmitthepleasuresandpainstobeinthemselvesneutral；tohave，thatis，thesamevalue，ifequallystrong，whatevertheirsource。Inourfinalbalance-sheetwemustsetdownpainsofillwillandofgoodwill，ofsenseandofintellectwithabsoluteimpartiality，andcomparethemsimplyinrespectofintensity。Wemustnotadmita’conscience’or’moralsense’whichwouldbeautocratic；
nor，indeed，allowmoraltohaveanymeaningasappliedtotheseparatepassions。
Butitisquiteconsistentwiththistoadmitthatsomemotives，goodwillinparticular，generallytendtobringoutthedesirableresult，thatis，abalanceofpleasureforthegreatestnumber。Thepainsandpleasuresaretheultimatefacts，andthe’disposition’isa’fictitiousentity’oranameforthesumofsensibilities。Itrepresentsthefactthatsomemenaremoreinclinedthanotherstoincreasethetotalofgoodorbad。
IV。CRIMINALLAW
Wehavenow，afteralonganalysis，reachedthepointatwhichtheprinciplescanbeappliedtopenallaw。Thelegislatorhastodiscouragecertainclassesofconductbyannexing’tutelarymotives。’Theclassestobesuppressedareofcoursethosewhichdiminishhappiness。Pursuingthesamemethod，andapplyingresultsalreadyreached，wemustinthefirstplaceconsiderhowthe’mischiefofanact’istobemeasured。52*Actsaremischievousastheir’consequences’
aremischievous；andtheconsequencesmaybe’primary’or’secondary。’Robberycausespaintotheloserofthemoney。Thatisaprimaryevil。Italarmstheholdersofmoney；itsuggeststhefacilityofrobberytoothers；anditweakensthe’tutelarymotive’ofrespectforproperty。Thesearesecondaryevils。The’secondary’evilmaybeattimesthemostimportant。Thenon-paymentofataxmaydonoappreciableharminaparticularcase。Butitssecondaryeffectsininjuringthewholepoliticalfabricmaybedisastrousandfruitfulbeyondcalculation。Benthamproceedstoshowcarefullyhowthe’intentions’
and’motives’oftheevil-doerareofthegreatestimportance，especiallyindeterminingthesesecondaryconsequences，andmustthereforebetakenintoaccountbythelegislator。Ahomicidemaycausethesameprimaryevil，whetheraccidentalormalignant；butaccidentalhomicidemaycausenoalarm，whereastheintentionalandmalignanthomicidemaycauseanyquantityofalarmandshocktothegeneralsenseofsecurity。Inthisway，therefore，thelegislatorhasagainindirectlytotakeintoaccountthemoralqualitywhichisitselfdependentuponutility。
Imust，however，passlightlyoveraveryclearandinterestingdiscussiontoreachafurtherpointofprimaryimportancetotheUtilitariantheory，astothedistinctionbetweenthemoralandlegalspheres。53*Benthamhasnow’madeananalysisofevil。’Hehas，thatis，classifiedthemischiefsproducedbyconduct，measuredsimplybytheireffectuponpleasuresorpains，independentlyofanyconsiderationastovirtueandvice。Thenextproblemis：whatconductshouldbecriminal?——asubjectwhichisvirtuallydiscussedintwochaptersxvandxix’oncasesunmeetforpunishment’andon’thelimitsbetweenPrivateEthicsandtheactoflegislation。’Wemust，ofcourse，followtheonecluetothelabyrinth。Wemustcountallthe’lots’ofpainandpleasureindifferently。Itisclear，ontheonehand，thatthepainssufferedbycriminalsarefarlessthanthepainswhichwouldbesufferedwerenosuchsanctionsapplied。Ontheotherhand，allpunishmentisanevil，becausepunishmentmeanspain，anditisthereforeonlytobeinflictedwhenitexcludesgreaterpain。Itmust，therefore，notbeinflictedwhenitis’groundless，’’inefficacious，’’unprofitable，’or’needless。’’Needless’
includesallthecasesinwhichtheendmaybeattained’aseffectuallyatacheaperrate。’54*Thisappliestoall’disseminationofperniciousprinciples’；
forinthiscasereasonandnotforceistheappropriateremedy。Theswordinflictsmorepain，andislessefficientthanthepen。Theargumentraisesthewiderquestion，Whatarethetruelimitsoflegislativeinterference?
Bentham，inhislastchapter，endeavourstoanswerthisproblem。’Privateethics，’hesays，and’legislation’aimatthesameend，namely，happiness，andthe’actswithwhichtheyareconversantareingreatmeasurethesame。’
Why，then，shouldtheyhavedifferentspheres?Simplybecausetheacts’arenotperfectlyandthroughoutthesame。’55*How，then，arewetodrawtheline?Byfollowingtheinvariableclueof’utility。’Wesimplyhavetoapplyananalysistodeterminethecasesinwhichpunishmentdoesmoreharmthangood。Heinsistsespeciallyuponthecasesinwhichpunishmentis’unprofitable’；
uponsuchoffencesasdrunkennessandsexualimmorality，wherethelawcouldonlybeenforcedbyamischievousorimpossiblesystemofminutesupervision，andsuchoffencesasingratitudeorrudeness，wherethedefinitionissovaguethatthejudgecouldnotsafelybeentrustedwiththepowertopunish。’56*
Heendeavourstogivearathermoreprecisedistinctionbysub-dividing’ethicsingeneral’intothreeclasses。Dutymaybetooneself，thatis’prudence’；
ortoone’sneighbournegatively，thatis’probity’；ortoone’sneighbourpositively，thatis’benevolence。’57*Dutiesofthefirstclassmustbeleftchieflytotheindividual，becauseheisthebestjudgeofhisowninterest。
Dutiesofthethirdclassagainaregenerallytoovaguetobeenforcedbythelegislator，thoughamanoughtperhapstobepunishedforfailingtohelpaswellasforactuallyinjuring。Theseconddepartmentofethics，thatof’probity，’isthemainfieldforlegislativeactivity。58*Asageneralprinciple，’privateethics’teachamanhowtopursuehisownhappiness，andtheartoflegislationhowtopursuethegreatesthappinessofthecommunity。
Itmustbenoticed，forthepointisoneofimportance，thatBentham’spurelyempiricalmethoddrawsnodefiniteline。Itimpliesthatnodefinitelinecanbedrawn。Itdoesnotsuggestthatanykindofconductwhateverisoutsidetheproperprovinceoflegislatorexceptinsofarasthelegislativemachinerymayhappentobeinadequateorinappropriate。
Ouranalysishasnowbeencarriedsofarthatwecanproceedtoconsidertheprinciplesbywhichweshouldbeguidedinpunishing。Whatarethedesirablepropertiesofa’lotofpunishment’?Thisoccupiestwointerestingchapters。
Chapterxvi，’ontheproportionbetweenpunishmentsandoffences，’givestwelverules。Thepunishment，heurges，mustoutweightheprofitoftheoffence；
itmustbesuchastomakeamanpreferalessoffencetoagreater-simpletheft，forexample，toviolentrobbery；itmustbesuchthatthepunishmentmustbeadaptabletothevaryingsensibilityoftheoffender；itmustbegreaterin’value’asitfallsshortofcertainty；and，whentheoffenceindicatesahabit，itmustoutweighnotonlytheprofitoftheparticularoffence，butoftheundetectedoffences。InchapterxviiBenthamconsidersthepropertieswhichfitapunishmenttofulfiltheseconditions。Elevenpropertiesaregiven。Thepunishmentmustbe1’variable，’thatis，capableofadjustmenttoparticularcases；and2equable，orinflictingequalpainbyequalsentences。Thusthe’proportion’betweenpunishmentandcrimesofagivenclasscanbesecured。Inorderthatthepunishmentsofdifferentclassesofcrimemaybeproportional，thepunishmentsshould3becommensurable。
Tomakepunishmentsefficacioustheyshouldbe4’characteristical’orimpressivetotheimagination；andthattheymaynotbeexcessivetheyshouldbe5exemplaryorlikelytoimpressothers，and6frugal。Tosecureminorendstheyshouldbe7reformatory；8disabling，i。e。fromfutureoffences；
and9compensatorytothesufferer。Finally，toavoidcollateraldisadvantagestheyshouldbe10popular，and11remittable。Atwelfthproperty，simplicity，wasaddedinDumont’sredaction。DumontcallsattentionheretothevalueofBentham’smethod。59*MontesquieuandBeccariahadspokeningeneraltermsofthedesirablequalitiesofpunishment。Theyhadspokenof’proportionality，’
forexample，butwithoutthatpreciseordefinitemeaningwhichappearsinBentham’sCalculus。Infact，Bentham’sstatement，comparedtothevaguerutterancesofhispredecessors，butstillmorewhencomparedtothehaphazardbrutalitiesandinconsistenciesofEnglishcriminallaw，givesthebestimpressionofthevalueofhismethod。
Bentham’snextstepisanelaborateclassificationofoffences，workedoutbyafurtherapplicationofhisbifurcatorymethod。60*Thiswouldformthegroundworkoftheprojectedcode。Icannot，however，speakofthisclassification，orofmanyinterestingremarkscontainedinthePrinciplesofPenalLaw，wheresomefurtherdetailsareconsidered。AnanalysisscarcelydoesjusticetoBentham，forithastoomithisillustrationsandhisflashesofrealvivacity。Themeredrylogicalframeworkisnotappetising。IhavegonesofarinordertoillustratethecharacteristicofBentham’steaching。Itwasnotthebareappealtoutility，buttheattempttofollowtheclueofutilitysystematicallyandunflinchinglyintoeverypartofthesubject。Thisonedoctrinegivesthetouchstonebywhicheveryproposedmeasureistobetested；