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　　butinordertoansweritwerequireawholelogicalandpsychologicalapparatus。

　　Benthamshowsthisapparatusatwork，butdoesnotexpounditsorigininanyseparatetreatise。Enoughinformation，however，isgivenastohismethodinthecuriouscollectionofthefragmentsconnectedwiththeChrestomathia。

　　Alogicalmethoduponwhichheconstantlyinsistedisthatof’bipartition，’16*

　　calledalsothe’dichotomous’or’bifurcate’method，andexemplifiedbythestalled’PorphyrianTree。’Theprincipleis，ofcourse，simple。Takeanygenus：divideitintotwoclasses，oneofwhichhasandtheotherhasnotacertainmark。Thetwoclassesmustbemutuallyexclusiveandtogetherexhaustive。

　　Repeattheoperationuponeachoftheclassesandcontinuetheprocessaslongasdesired。17*Ateverystepyouthushaveacompleteenumerationofallthespecies，varieties，andsoon，eachofwhichexcludesalltheothers。Nomerelogic，indeed，cansecuretheaccuracyandstilllesstheutilityoftheprocedure。Thedifferencesmaybeinthemselvesambiguousorirrelevant。IfIclassifyplantsas’trees’and’nottrees，’thelogicalformissatisfied：butIhavestilltoaskwhether’tree’conveysadeterminatemeaning，andwhetherthedistinctioncorrespondstoadifferenceofanyimportance。

　　Aperfectclassification，however，couldalwaysbestatedinthisform。Eachspecies，thatis，canbemarkedbythepresenceorabsenceofagivendifference，whetherwearedealingwithclassesofplantsoractions：andBenthamaimsatthatconsummationthoughheadmitsthatcenturiesmayberequiredfortheconstructionofanaccurateclassificationinethicalspeculations。18*

　　Heexaggeratestheefficiencyofhismethod，andoverlooksthetendencyoftacitassumptionstosmugglethemselvesintowhataffectstobeamereenumerationofclasses。Butinanycase，noonecouldlabourmoreindustriouslytogeteveryobjectofhisthoughtarrangedandlabelledandputintotherightpigeon-holeofhismentalmuseum。Tocodify19*istoclassify，andBenthammightbedefinedasacodifyinganimal。

　　ThingsthuspresentthemselvestoBentham’smindasalreadypreparedtofitintopigeon-holes。Thisisacharacteristicpoint，anditappearsinwhatwemustcallhismetaphysicalsystem。’Metaphysics，’indeed，accordingtohim，issimply’asprig，’andthatasmallone，ofthe’branchtermedLogic。’20*Itismerelytheexplanationofcertaingeneraltermssuchas’existence，’’necessity，’andsoforth。21*Underthiswouldapparentlyfalltheexplanationof’reality’whichleadstoadoctrineuponwhichheofteninsists，andwhichismostimplicitlygiveninthefragmentcalledOntology。Hetheredistinguishes’real’from’fictitiousentities，’adistinctionwhich，ashetellsus，22*hefirstlearnedfromd’Alembert’sphrase&Ecirc；tresfictifs，andwhichheappliesinhisMoralsandLegislation。’Realentities，’

　　accordingtohim，23*are’individualperceptions，’’impressions，’and’ideas。’

　　Inthis，ofcourse，heisfollowingHume，thoughheappliestheJohnsonianargumenttoBerkeley’simmaterialism。24*A’fictitiousentity’isanamewhichdoesnot’raiseupinthemindanycorrespondentimages。’25*Suchnamesowetheirexistencetothenecessitiesoflanguage。Withoutemployingsuchfictions，however，’thelanguageofmancouldnothaverisenabovethelanguageofbrutes’；26*andheemphaticallydistinguishesthemfrom’unreal’

　　or’fabulousentities。’A’fictitiousentity’isnota’nonentity。’27*

　　HeincludesamongsuchentitiesallAristotle’s’predicaments’exceptthefirst：’substance。’28*Quantity，quality，relation，time，placeareall’physicalfictitiousentities。’Thisisapparentlyequivalenttosayingthattheonly’physicalentities’areconcretethings——sticks，stones，bodies，andsoforth——the’reality’ofwhichhetakesforgrantedintheordinarycommon-sensemeaning。Itisalsoperfectlytruethatthingsarereallyrelated，havequantityandquality，andareintimeandspace。Butwecannotreallyconceivethequalityorrelationapartfromtheconcretethingssoqualifiedandrelated。Weareforcedbylanguagetousesubstantiveswhichintheirnaturehaveonlythesenseofadjectives。Hedoesnotsupposethatabodyisnotreallysquareorround；buthethinksitafictiontospeakofsquarenessorroundnessorspaceingeneralassomethingexistingapartfrommatterand，insomesense，alongsideofmatter。

　　Thisdoctrine，whichbringsuswithinsightofmetaphysicalproblemsbeyondourimmediatepurpose，becomesimportanttohismoralspeculation。Hisspecialexampleofa’fictitiousentity’inpoliticsis’obligation。’29*Obligations，rights，andsimilarwordsare’fictitiousentities。’Obligationinparticularimpliesametaphor。Thestatementthatamanis’obliged’toperformanactmeanssimplythathewillsufferpainifhedoesnotperformit。Theuseofthewordobligation，asanounsubstantive，introducesthe’fictitiousentity’whichrepresentsnothingreallyseparablefromthepainorpleasure。

　　Here，therefore，wehavethegroundofthedoctrinealreadynoticed。’Painsandpleasures’arereal。30*’Theirexistence，’hesays，31*’ismatterofuniversalandconstantexperience。’Butothervariousnamesreferringtothese：emotion，inclination，vice，virtue，etc。，areonly’psychologicalentities。’’Takeawaypleasuresandpains，notonlyhappinessbutjusticeanddutyandobligationandvirtue——allofwhichhavebeensoelaboratelyhelduptoviewasindependentofthem——aresomanyemptysounds。’32*

　　Theultimatefacts，then，arepainsandpleasures。Theyarethesubstantivesofwhichtheseotherwordsareproperlytheadjectives。Apainorapleasuremayexistbyitself，thatiswithoutbeingvirtuousorvicious：butvirtueandvicecanonlyexistinsofaraspainandpleasureexists。

　　Thisanalysisof’obligation’isacharacteristicdoctrineoftheUtilitarianschool。Weareunderan’obligation’sofarasweareaffectedbya’sanction。’

　　ItappearedtoBenthamsoobviousastoneednodemonstration，onlyanexpositionoftheemptinessofanyverbalcontradiction。Suchmetaphysicalbasisasheneededissimplytheattempttoexpressthecorrespondingconceptionofrealitywhich，inhisopinion，onlyrequirestobeexpressedtocarryconviction。

　　II。SPRINGSOFACTION

　　Ourpathisnowclear。Painsandpleasuresgiveuswhatmathematicianscallthe’independentvariable。’OurunitsareinBentham’sphrase’lots’

　　ofpainorpleasure。Wehavetointerpretallthefactsintermsofpainorpleasure，andweshallhavethematerialsforwhathassincebeencalleda’felicificcalculus。’Toconstructthiswithaviewtolegislationishisimmediatepurpose。Thetheorywillfallintotwoparts：the’pathological，’

　　oranaccountofallthepainsandpleasureswhicharetheprimarydata；

　　andthe’dynamical，’oranaccountofthevariousmodesofconductdeterminedbyexpectationsofpainandpleasure。Thisgivesthetheoryof’springsofaction，’consideredinthemselves，andof’motives，’thatis，ofthespringsasinfluencingconduct。33*The’pathology’contains，inthefirstplace，adiscussionofthemeasureofpainandpleasureingeneral；secondly，adiscussionofthevariousspeciesofpainandpleasure；andthirdly，adiscussionofthevaryingsensibilitiesofdifferentindividualstopainandpleasure。34*

　　Thusunderthefirsthead，wearetoldthatthevalueofapleasure，consideredbyitself，dependsuponitsintensity，duration，certainty，andpropinquity；

　　and，consideredwithregardtomodesofobtainingit，uponitsfecundityortendencytoproduceotherpainsandpleasuresanditspurityorfreedomfromadmixtureofotherpainsandpleasures。Thepainorpleasureisthusregardedasanentitywhichiscapableofbeinginsomesenseweighedandmeasured。35*Thenextstepistoclassifypainsandpleasures，whichthoughcommensurableaspsychologicalforces，haveobviouslyverydifferentqualities。

　　Benthamgivestheresultofhisclassificationwithouttheanalysisuponwhichitdepends。Heassuresusthathehasobtainedan’exhaustive’listof’simplepleasures。’Itmustbeconfessedthatthelistdoesnotcommenditselfeitherasexhaustiveorascomposedof’simplepleasures。’Hedoesnotexplaintheprincipleofhisanalysisbecausehesays，itwasof’toometaphysicalacast，’36*buthethoughtitsoimportantthathepublishedit，editedwithconsiderablemodificationsbyJamesMill，in1817，asaTableoftheSpringsofAction。37*

　　J。S。MillremarksthatthistableshouldbestudiedbyanyonewhowouldunderstandBentham’sphilosophy。Suchastudywouldsuggestsomeunfavourableconclusions。Benthamseemstohavemadeouthistablewithouttheslightestreferencetoanypreviouspsychologist。Itissimplyconstructedtomeettherequirementsofhislegislativetheories。Aspsychologyitwouldbeclearlyabsurd，especiallyiftakenasgivingtheelementaryor’simple’feelings。

　　Noonecansuppose，forexample，thatthepleasuresof’wealth’or’power’

　　are’simple’pleasures。Theclassesthereforearenotreallydistinct，andtheyareasfarfrombeingexhaustive。Allthatcanbesaidforthelististhatitgivesasufficientlylongenumerationtocallattentionfromhisownpointofviewtomostoftheordinarypleasuresandpains；andcontains。

　　asmuchpsychologyashecouldreallyturntoaccountforhispurpose。

　　Theomissionswithwhichhisgreatestdisciplechargeshimarecertainlysignificant。Wefind，saysMill，noreferenceto’Conscience，’’Principle，’

　　’MoralRectitude，’or’MoralDuty’amongthe’springsofaction，’unlessamongthesynonymsofa’loveofreputation，’orinsofaras’Conscience’

　　and’Principle’aresometimessynonymouswiththe’religious’motiveorthemotiveof’sympathy。’Sothesenseof’honour，’theloveofbeauty，andoforder，ofpowerexceptinthenarrowsenseofpoweroverourfellowsandofactioningeneralareallomitted。WemayconjecturewhatreplyBenthamwouldhavemadetothiscriticism。TheomissionoftheloveofbeautyandaestheticpleasuresmaysurpriseuswhenwerememberthatBenthamlovedmusic，ifhecarednothingforpoetry。Butheapparentlyregardedtheseas’complexpleasures，’38*andthereforenotadmissibleintohistable，ifitbeunderstoodasananalysisintothesimplepleasuresalone。Thepleasuresofactionaredeliberatelyomitted，forBenthampointedlygivesthe’pains’oflabourasaclasswithoutcorrespondingpleasure；andthis，thoughindicative，Ithink，ofaveryseriouserror，ischaracteristicratherofhismethodofanalysisthanofhisrealestimateofpleasure。NobodycouldhavefoundmorepleasurethanBenthaminintellectuallabour，butheseparatedthepleasurefromthelabour。Hethereforethought’labour，’assuch，apureevil，andclassifiedthepleasureasapleasureof’curiosity。’Butthemaincriticismismoreremarkable。MillcertainlyheldhimselftobeasoundUtilitarian；andyetheseemstobecondemningBenthamforconsistentUtilitarianism。Bentham，byadmittingthe’conscience’intohissimplespringsofaction，wouldhavefallenintotheverycirclefromwhichhewasstrugglingtoemerge。If，infact，thepleasuresofconsciencearesimplepleasures，wehavetheobjectionable’moralsense’intrudedasanultimatefactorofhumannature。Togetridofthat’fictitiousentity’ispreciselyBentham’saim。Themoraljudgmentistobepreciselyequivalenttothejudgment：’thisorthatkindofconductincreasesordiminishesthesumofhumanpainsorpleasures。’Onceallowthatamongthepainsandpleasuresthemselvesisanultimateconscience