Whenhedemandedthatagreatershareofinfluenceshouldbegiventothepeople，healwaystookforgrantedthattheirpowerwouldbeusedtodiminishtheactivityofthesovereignpower；thattherewouldbelessgovernmentandthereforelessjobbery，lessinterferencewithfreespeechandfreeaction，andsmallerperquisitestobebestowedinreturnforthenecessaryservices。
Thepeoplewouldusetheirauthoritytotiethehandsoftherulers，andlimitthemstrictlytotheirproperandnarrowfunctions。
Theabsence，again，oftheideaofastateinanyothersenseimpliesanothertendency。The’idea’wasnotrequired，Englishmenwereconcernedratherwithdetailsthanwithfirstprinciples。Satisfied，inageneralway，withtheirconstitution，theydidnotwanttobebotheredwiththeories。
Abstractandabsolutedoctrinesofright，whenimportedfromFrance，fellflatupontheaverageEnglishman。Hewaseagerenoughtodiscusstheutilityofthisorthatpartofthemachinery，butwithoutinquiringintofirstprinciplesofmechanism。Theargumentfrom’utility’dealswithconcretefacts，andpresupposesanacceptanceofsomecommoncriterionoftheuseful。Theconstantdiscussionofpoliticalmattersinparliamentandthepressimpliedatacitacceptanceonallhandsofconstitutionalmethods。Practicalmen，askingwhetherthisorthatpolicyshallbeadoptedinviewofactualevents，nomorewanttogobacktorightreasonand’lawsofnature’thanasurveyortoinvestigatethenatureofgeometricaldemonstration。Veryimportantquestionswereraisedastotherightsofthepress，forexample，orthesystemofrepresentation。Buteverybodyagreedthattherepresentativesystemandfreedomofspeechweregoodthings；andarguedtheimmediatequestionsoffact。Theorder，onlyestablishedbyexperienceandtradition，wasaccepted，subjecttocriticismofdetail，andmenturnedimpatientlyfromabstractargument，andlefttheinquiryinto’socialcontracts’tophilosophers，thatis，tosillypeopleinlibraries。Politicswereproperlyamatterofbusiness，tobediscussedinabusiness-likespirit。Inthissense，’individualism’iscongenialto’empiricism，’becauseitstartsfromfactsandparticularinterests，andresentstheintrusionoffirstprinciples。Thecharacteristicindividualism，again，suggestsoneotherremark。Individualenergyandsenseofresponsibilityaregoodasevenextremesocialistsmayadmit——iftheydonotexcludeasenseofdutiestoothers。Itmaybeaquestionhowfarthestimulationofindividualenterpriseandthevigorousspiritofindustrialcompetitionreallyledtoadisregardoftheinterestsoftheweaker。Butitwouldbeacompletemisunderstandingofthetimeifweinferredthatitmeantadeclineofhumanefeeling。Undoubtedlygreatevilshadgrownup，andsomecontinuedtogrowwhichweretoleratedbytheindifference，orevenstimulatedbytheselfishaims，ofthedominantclasses。But，inthefirstplace，manyofthemostactiveprophetsoftheindividualistspiritwereacting，andactingsincerely，inthenameofhumanity。Theywereattackingasystemwhichtheyheld，andtoagreatextent，Ibelieve，heldrightly，tobeespeciallyinjurioustotheweakestclasses。Possiblytheyexpectedtoomuchfromthesimpleremovalofrestrictions；butcertainlytheydenouncedtherestrictionsasunjusttoall，notsimplyashindrancestothewealthoftherich。AdamSmith’spositionisintelligible：itwas，hethought，aproofofaprovidentialorderthateachman，byhelpinghimself，unintentionallyhelpedhisneighbours。
Themoralsensebaseduponsympathywasthereforenotopposedto，butjustified，theeconomicprinciplesthateachmanshouldfirstattendtohisowninterest。
Theunintentionalco-operationwouldthusbecomeconsciousandcompatiblewiththeestablishedorder。And，inthenextplace，sofarfromtherebeingawantofhumanefeeling，themostmarkedcharacteristicoftheeighteenthcenturywaspreciselythegrowthofhumanity。Inthenextgeneration，theeighteenthcenturycametobedenouncedascold，heartless，faithless，andsoforth。Theestablishedmodeofwritinghistoryispartlyresponsibleforthisperversion。Menspeakasthoughsomegreatman，whofirstcalledattentiontoanevil，wasasupernaturalbeingwhohadsuddenlydroppedintotheworldfromanothersphere。Hiscondemnationofevilisthereforetakentobeaproofthatthetimemustbeevil。Anycenturyisbadifweassumeallthegoodmentoheexceptions。Butthegreatmanisreallyalsotheproductofhistime。Heisthemouthpieceofitsprevailingsentiments，andonlythefirsttoseeclearlywhatmanyarebeginningtoperceiveobscurely。Theemergenceoftheprophetisaproofofthegrowingdemandofhishearersforsoundteaching。Becauseheisinadvanceofmengenerally，heseesexistingabusesmoreclearly，andwetakehisevidenceagainsthiscontemporariesasconclusive。
Butthefactthattheylistenedshowshowwidelythesamesensibilitytoevilwasalreadydiffused。Infact，asIthink，thehumanespiritoftheeighteenthcentury，duetothevastvarietyofcauseswhichwecallsocialprogressorevolutionnottotheteachingofanyindividual——waspermeatingthewholecivilisedworld，andshoweditselfinthephilosophicmovementaswellasintheteachingofthereligiousleaders，whotookthephilosopherstobetheirenemies。Ihavebrieflynoticedthevariousphilanthropicmovementswhichwerecharacteristicoftheperiod。Someofthemmayindicatethegrowthofnewevils；others，thatevilswhichhadoncebeenregardedwithindifferencewerenowattractingattentionandexcitingindignation。Buteventhegrowthofnewevilsdoesnotshowgeneralindifferencesomuchastheincapacityoftheexistingsystemtodealwithnewconditions。Itmay，Ithink，besafelysaidthatagrowingphilanthropywascharacteristicofthewholeperiod，andinparticularanimatedtheUtilitarianmovement，asIshallhavetoshowindetail。ModernwritershaveoftenspokenoftheWesleyanpropagandaandthecontemporary’evangelicalrevival’asthemostimportantmovementsofthetime。Theyareapttospeak，inconformitywiththeviewjustdescribed，asthoughWesleyorsomeofhiscontemporarieshadoriginatedorcreatedthebetterspirit。Withoutaskingwhatwasgoodorbadinsomeaspectsofthesemovements，IfullybelievethatWesleywasessentiallyamoralreformer，andthathedeservescorrespondingrespect。Butinsteadofholdingthathiscontemporarieswerebadpeople，awakenedbyastimulusfromwithout，Iholdthatthemovement，sofarasreallyindicatingmoralimprovement，mustbesetdowntothecreditofthecenturyitself。Itwasonemanifestationofageneralprogress，ofwhichBenthamwasanotheroutcome。ThoughBenthammighthavethoughtWesleyafanaticorperhapsahypocrite，andWesleywouldcertainlyhaveconsideredthatBentham’sheartwasmuchinneedofachange，theywerereallyalliesasmuchasantagonists，andbothmarkagreatandbeneficialchange。
NOTES：
1。SeeDictionaryofNationalBiography。
2。Works，i，255。
3。SeeSirG。Nicholl’sHistoryofthePoor-law，1854。AneweditionwithlifebyH。G。Willink，appearedin1898。
4。History，i，175。
5。M’Culloch’snotetoWealthofNations，p。65。M’Cullochinhisappendixmakessomesensibleremarksupontheabsenceofanyproperlyconstitutedparochial’tribunal’。
6。WealthofNations，bk，i，ch。x。
7。SeepassagequotedinEden’sHistory，i，347。
8。ThomasFirmin1632-1677，aphilanthropist，whoseSocianianismdidnotexcludehimfromthefriendshipofsuchliberalbishopsasTillotsonandFowler，startedaworkhousein1676。
9。Nicholls1898，ii，14。
10。Ibid。，1898，ii，123。
11。Report，p。67。
12。WilliamHay，forexample，carriedresolutionsintheHouseofCommonsin1735，butfailedtocarryabillwhichhadthisobject。SeeEden’sHistory，i，396。Cooperin1763proposedtomakethehundredtheunit——Nicholls’sHistory，i，58。FieldingproposesasimilarchangeinLondon。DeanTucker，speaksoftheevilofthelimitedareainthisManifoldCoursesoftheIncreaseofthePoor1760。
13。Nicholls，ii，88。
14。Parl。Hist。xxxii，710。
15。AfullabstractisgiveninEden’sHistory，iii，ccclxiii，etc。
16。BenthamobservesWorks，viii，448thatthecowwillrequirethethreeacrestokeepit。
17。Cobbett’sPoliticalWorks，vi，64。
18。IneedonlynoteherethatthefirsteditionofMalthus’sEssayappearedin1798，theyearafterEden’spublication。
19。Eden’sHistory，i，583。
20。Ibid。，i，587。
21。Maseres，anexcellentWhig，agoodmathematician，andarespectedlawyer，isperhapsbestknowatpresentfromhisportraitinCharlesLamb’sOldBenchers。
22。Itmaybenoticedasananticipationofmodernschemesthatin1792
Paineproposedasystemof’oldagepensions’，forwhichthenecessaryfundsweretobeeasilyobtainedwhenuniversalpeacehadabolishedallmilitarycharges。SeeStateTrials，xxv。175。
23。Aitkin’sCountryRoundManchester。
24。Bounce’sHistoryoftheCorporationofBirmingham1878。
25。HistoryofBirmingham2ndedition，p。327。
26。Thefirstedition，1795，thesixth，fromwhichIquote，in1800。InBentham’sWorks，x，330，itissaidthatin1798，7500copiesofthisbookhadbeensold。
27。In1814ColquohounpublishedanelaborateaccountoftheResourcesoftheBritishEmpire，showingsimilarquaities。