Amongtheseaconsiderablenumberwereintendedtopromoteeducation。Here，asinsomeothercases，itseemsthatpeopleattheendofthecenturywereoftentakingupanimpulsegivenacenturybefore。SotheSocietyforpromotingChristianKnowledge，foundedin1699，andtheSocietyforthePropagationoftheGospel，foundedin1701，weresupplementedbytheChurchMissionarySocietyandtheReligiousTractSociety，bothfoundedin1799。Thesocietiesforthereformationofmanners，prevalentattheendoftheseventeenthcentury，weretakenasamodelbyWilberforceandhisfriendsattheendoftheeighteenth。45*
Inthesameway，thefirstattemptsatprovidingageneraleducationforthepoorhadbeenmadebyArchbishopTenison，whofoundedaparochialschoolabout1680inorder’tocheckthegrowthofpopery。’Charityschoolsbecamecommonduringtheearlypartoftheeighteenthcenturyandreceivedvariousendowments。Theywereattackedastendingtoteachthepoortoomuch——averyneedlessalarm——andalsobyfreethinkers，suchasMandeville，asintendedoutworksoftheestablishedchurch。Thislastobjectionwasaforetasteofthebitterreligiouscontroversieswhichweretoaccompanythegrowthofaneducationalsystem。Colquhounsaysthattherewere62endowedschoolsinLondon，fromChrist’sHospitaldownwards，educatingabout5000children；
237parishschoolswithabout9000children，and3730’privateschools。’
Theteachingwas，ofcourse，veryimperfect，andinareportofacommitteeoftheHouseofCommonsin1818，itiscalculatedthatabouthalfthechildreninalargedistrictwereentirelyuneducated。Therewas，ofcourse，nothinginEnglanddeservingthenameofasystemineducationalmorethaninanyothermatters。Thegrammarschoolsthroughoutthecountryprovidedmoreorlessfortheclasseswhichcouldnotaspiretothepublicschoolsanduniversities。
AboutathirdoftheboysatChrist’sHospitalwere，asColeridgetellsus，sonsofclergymen。46*Thechildrenofthepoorwereeithernoteducated，orpickeduptheirlettersatsomecharityschoolorsuchacountrydame’sschoolasisdescribedbyShenstone。Acuriousproof，however，ofrisinginterestinthequestionisgivenbytheSundaySchoolsmovementattheendofthecentury。RobertRaikes1735-1811，aprinterinGloucesterandproprietorofanewspaper，joinedwithaclergymantosetupaschoolin1780atatotalcostof1s。6d。aweek。Withinthreeorfouryearstheplanwastakenupeverywhere，andtheworthyRaikes，whosenewspaperhadspreadthenews，foundhimselfreveredasagreatpioneerofphilanthropy。Wesleytookuptheschemewarmly；bishopscondescendedtoapprove；thekingandqueenwereinterested，andwithinthreeorfouryearsthenumberoflearnerswasreckonedattwoorthreehundredthousand。ASundaySchoolAssociationwasformedin1785
withwellknownmenofbusinessatitshead。QueenCharlotte’sfriend，MrsTrimmer1741-1810，tookuptheworknearLondon，andHannahMore1745-1833
inSomersetshire。HannahMoregivesastrangeaccountoftheutterabsenceofanycivilisingagenciesinthedistrictaroundCheddarwheresheandhersisterslaboured。Shewasaccusedof’methodism’andaleaningtoJacobinism，althoughherviewswereofthemostmoderatekind。ShewishedthepoortobeabletoreadtheirBiblesandtobequalifiedfordomesticduties，butnottowriteortobeenabledtoreadTomPaineorbeencouragedtoriseabovetheirposition。TheliterarylightoftheWhigs，DrParr1747-1825，showedhisliberalitybyarguingthatthepooroughttobetaught，butadmittedthattheenterprisehaditslimits。The’DeityHimselfhadfixedagreatgulphbetweenthemandthepoor。’AscantyinstructiongivenonSundaysalonewasnotcalculatedtofacilitatethepassageofthatgulf。Bytheendofthecentury，however，signsofamoresystematicmovementwereshowingthemselves。
BellandLancaster，ofwhomIshallhavetospeak，wererivalclaimantsforthehonourofinitiatinganewdepartureineducation。Thecontroversywhichafterwardsragedbetweenthesupportersofthetwosystemsmarkedacompleterevolutionofopinion。Meanwhile，althoughtheneedofschoolswasbeginningtobefelt，theappliancesforeducationinEnglandwereastrikinginstanceofthegeneralinefficiencyineverydepartmentwhichneededcombinedaction。
InScotlandthesystemofparishschoolswasoneobviouscauseofthesuccessofsomanyoftheScotsmenwhichexcitedthejealousyofsoutherncompetitors。
EveninIrelandthereappearstohavebeenamoreefficientsetofschools。
Andyet，oneremarkmustbesuggested。ThereisprobablynoperiodinEnglishhistoryatwhichagreaternumberofpoormenhaverisentodistinction。
Thegreatestbeyondcomparisonofself-taughtpoetswasBurns1759-1796。
ThepoliticalwriterwhowasatthetimeproducingthemostmarkedeffectwasThomasPaine1737-1809，sonofasmalltradesman。HissuccessorininfluencewasWilliamCobbett1762-1835，sonofanagriculturallabourer，andoneofthepithiestofallEnglishwriters。WilliamGifford1756-1826，sonofasmalltradesmaninDevonshire，wasalreadyknownasasatiristandwastoleadConservativesaseditoroftheTheQuarterlyReview。JohnDalton1766-1842，sonofapoorweaver，wasoneofthemostdistinguishedmenofscience。Porson1759-1808，thegreatestGreekscholarofhistime，wassonofaNorfolkparishclerk，thoughsagaciouspatronshadsenthimtoEtoninhisfifteenthyear。TheOxfordprofessorofArabic，JosephWhite1746-1814，wasSonofapoorweaverinthecountryandamanofreputationforlearning，althoughnowrememberedonlyforaratherdisreputableliterarysquabble。
RobertowenandJosephLancaster，bothsprungfromtheranks，wereleadersinsocialmovements。IhavealreadyspokenofsuchmenasWatt，Telford，andRennie；andsmallernamesmightbeaddedinliterature，science，andart。Theindividualistvirtueof’self-help’wasnotconfinedtosuccessfulmoneymakingortothewealthierclasses。OnecauseoftheliteraryexcellenceofBurns，Paine，andCobbettmaybethat，whenliteraturewaslesscentralised，awriterwaslesstemptedtodeserthisnaturaldialect。Imentionthefact，however，merelytosuggestthat，whateverwerethenthedifficultiesofgettingsuchschoolingasisnowcommon，anenergeticladeveninthemostneglectedregionsmightforcehiswaytothefront。
IV。THESLAVE-TRADE
Ihavethusnoticedthemostconspicuousofthecontemporaryproblemswhich，asweshallsee，providedthemaintasksofBenthamandhisfollowers。
Oneothertopicmustbementionedasinmorewaysthanonecharacteristicofthespiritofthetime。Theparliamentaryattackupontheslave-tradebeganjustbeforetheoutbreakoftherevolution。Itisgenerallydescribedasanalmostsuddenawakeningofthenationalconscience。Thatitappealedtothatfacultyisundeniable，and，moreover，itisatleastaremarkableinstanceoflegislativeactionuponpurelymoralgrounds。Itistruethatinthiscasetheconsciencewasthelessimpededbecauseitwasrousedchieflybythesinsofmen’sneighbours。Theslave-tradingclasswasacomparativeexcrescence。Theirtradecouldbeattackedwithoutsuchwidespreadinterferencewiththesocialorderaswasimplied，forexample，inremedyingthegrievancesofpaupersorofchildreninfactories。Theconflictwithmorality，again，wassoplainastoneednodemonstration。Itseemstobeaquestionablelogicwhichassumesthemeritofareformertobeinproportiontotheflagrancyoftheevilassailed。Themoreobviousthecase，surelythelessthevirtueneededintheassailant。Howeverthismaybe，noonecandenythemoralexcellenceofsuchmenasWilberforceandClarkson，northerealchangeinthemoralstandardimpliedbythesuccessoftheiragitation。Butanotherquestionremains，whichisindicatedbyalatercontroversy。ThefollowersofWilberforceandofClarksonwerejealousofeachother。Eachpartytriedtoclaimthechiefmeritforitshero。Eachwas，Ithink，unjusttotheother。Theunderlyingmotivewasthedesiretoobtaincreditforthe’Evangelicals’ortheirrivalsastheoriginatorsofagreatmovement。Withouttouchingthepersonaldetailsitisnecessarytosaysomethingofthegeneralsentimentsimplied。Inhishistoryoftheagitation，47*Clarksongivesaquaintchart，showinghowtheimpulsespreadfromvariouscentrestillitconvergeduponasinglearea，andhisfactsaresignificant。
Thatagreatchangehadtakenplaceisundeniable。ProtestantEnglandhadbargainedwithCatholicSpaininthemiddleofthecenturyfortherightofsupplyingslavestoAmerica，whileatthepeaceof1814Englishstatesmenwereendeavouringtosecureacombinationofallcivilisedpowersagainstthetrade。Smollett，in1748，makesthefortuneofhishero，RoderickRandom，byplacinghimasmateofaslave-shipundertheidealsailor，Bowling。AboutthesametimeJohnNewton1725-1807，afterwardstheveneratedteacherofCowperandtheEvangelicals，wasincommandofaslaver，andenjoying’sweeterandmorefrequenthoursofdivinecommunion’thanhehadelsewhereknown。
Hehadnoscruples，thoughhehadthegracetopray’tobefixedinamorehumanecalling。’Inlateryearshegavethebenefitofhisexperiencetotheabolitionists。48*Anewsentiment，however，wasalreadyshowingitself。
Clarksoncollectsvariousinstances。Southern’sOroonoco，foundedonastorybyMrsBehn，andSteele’sstoryofInkleandYaricoinanearlySpectator，Pope’spoorIndianintheEssayonMan，andallusionsbyThomson，Shenstone，andSavage，showthatpoetsandnovelistscouldoccasionallyturnthethemetoaccount。Hutcheson，themoralist，incidentallycondemnsslavery；anddivinessuchasbishopsHayterandWarburtontookthesameviewinsermonsbeforetheSocietyforthePropagationofChristianKnowledge。Johnson，’lastoftheTories’thoughhewas，hadarighteoushatredforthesystem。49*HetoastedthenextinsurrectionofnegroesintheWestIndies，andaskedwhywealwaysheardthe’loudestyelpsforlibertyamongthedriversofnegroes’?
ThomasDay1748-1789，asanardentfollowerofRousseau，wrotetheDyingNegroin1773，and，inthesamespirit，denouncedtheinconsistenciesofslave-holdingchampionsofAmericanliberty。
Suchisolatedutterancesshowedaspreadingsentiment。ThehonourofthefirstvictoryinthepracticalapplicationmustbegiventoGranvilleSharp50*
1735-1813，oneofthemostcharmingand，inthebestsense，’Quixotic’
ofmen。In1772hisexertionshadledtothefamousdecisionbyLordMansfieldinthecaseofthenegroSomerset。51*Sharpin1787becamechairmanofthecommitteeformedtoattacktheslave-tradebycollectingtheevidenceofwhichWilberforcemadeuseinparliament。ThecommitteewaschieflycomposedofQuakers；asindeed，Quakersareprettysuretobefoundineveryphilanthropicmovementoftheperiod。Imustleavetheexplanationtothehistorianofreligiousmovements；butthefactischaracteristic。TheQuakershadtakentheleadinAmerica。TheQuakerwasbothpracticalandamystic。Hisprinciplesputhimoutsideoftheordinarypoliticalinterests，andofthemilitaryworld。Hedirectedhisactivitiestohelpingthepoor，theprisoner，andtheoppressed。AmongtheQuakersoftheeighteenthcenturywereJohnWoolman1720-1772，awriterbelovedbythecongenialCharlesLambandAntoineBenezet1713-1784，borninFrance，andsonofaFrenchrefugeewhosettledinPhiladelphia。
WhenClarksonwrotetheprizeessayupontheslave-trade1785，whichstartedhiscareer，itwasfromBenezet’swritingsthatheobtainedhisinformation。
BytheirinfluencethePennsylvanianQuakersweregraduallyledtopronounceagainstslavery；52*andthefirstanti-slaverysocietywasfoundedinPhiladelphiain1775，theyearinwhichtheskirmishatLexingtonbeganthewarofindependence。