Thoughthelord-lieutenantandthejusticesofthepeacewerenominatedbythecrown，theirauthoritycameinfactasanalmostspontaneousconsequenceoftheirbirthrightortheiracquiredpositioninthecountry。Theyshonebytheirownlightandwerereallytheultimatesourcesofauthority。Seatsinparliament，prefermentsinthechurch，commissionsinthearmybelongedtothemliketheirestates；andtheyseemedtobequalifiedbynature，ratherthanbyappointment，toactinjudicialandadministrativecapacities。Thesystemof’self-government’embodiesthisview。Thefunctionsofgovernmentwereassignedtomenalreadypowerfulbytheirsocialposition。TheabsenceofthecentralisedhierarchyofofficialsgavetoEnglishmenthesenseofpersonallibertywhichcompelledtheadmirationofVoltaireandhiscountrymenintheeighteenthcentury。InEnglandwerenolettresdecachet，andnoBastille。
Amancouldsaywhathethoughtandactwithoutfearofarbitraryrule。Therewasnosuchsystemasthatwhich，inFrance，putstheagentsofthecentralpowerabovetheordinarylawoftheland。Thisimplieswhathasbeencalledthe’ruleofthelaw’inEngland。’Withuseveryofficialfromtheprimeministerdowntoaconstableoracollectoroftaxes’asProfessorDiceyexplainstheprinciple’isunderthesameresponsibilityforeveryactdonewithoutlegaljustificationasanyothercitizen。’25*TheearlycentralisationoftheEnglishmonarchyhadmadethelawsupreme，andinsteadofgeneratinganewstructurehadcombinedandregulatedtheexistingsocialforces。Thesovereignpowerwasthusfarmedtothearistocracyinsteadofforminganorganofitsown。Insteadofresigningpowertheywereforcedtoexerciseitonconditionofthoroughresponsibilitytothecentraljudiciary。Theirprivilegeswerenotdestroyedbutwerecombinedwiththedischargeofcorrespondingduties。Whatevertheirshortcomings，theywerepreservedfromthedecaywhichistheinevitableconsequenceofadivorceofdutiesfromprivileges。
Anotheraspectofthecaseisequallyclear。Iftheprivilegeisassociatedwithaduty，thedutymayalsoberegardedasaprivilege。Thedoctrineseemstomarkanaturalstageintheevolutionoftheconceptionofdutytothestate。Thepowerwhichislefttoamemberoftherulingclassisalsopartofhisdignity。Thuswehaveanamalgamationbetweentheconceptionsofprivatepropertyandpublictrust。’Insofarastheidealoffeudalismisperfectlyrealised，’ithasbeensaid，26*’allthatwecancallpubliclawismergedinprivatelaw；jurisdictionisproperty；officeisproperty；thekingshipitselfisproperty。’Thisfeudalidealwasstillpreservedwithmanyoftheinstitutionsdescendedfromfeudalism。Theking’srighttohisthronewasregardedasofthesamekindastherighttoaprivateestate。Hisrightsaskingwerealsohisrightsastheowneroftheland。27*Subordinatelandownershadsimilarrights，andastheroyalpowerdiminishedgreaterpowersfelltotheaggregateofconstitutionalkingletswhogovernedthecountry。Eachofthemwasfromonepointofviewanofficial，buteachalsoregardedhisofficeaspartofhisproperty。Thecountrybelongedtohimandhisclassratherthanhetothecountry。Weoccasionallyfindthequainttheorywhichdeducedpoliticalrightsfrompropertyinland。Thefreeholdersweretheownersofthesoilandmightgivenoticetoquittotherestofthepopulation。28*
Theyhadthereforeanaturalrighttocarryongovernmentintheirowninterests。
Therulingclasses，however，werenotmarkedofffromothersbyanydeeplineofdemarcation；theycouldselltheirownshareinthegovernmenttoanybodywhowasrichenoughtobuyit，andtherewasaconstantinfluxofnewblood。Moreover，theydidinfactimprovetheirestatewithverygreatenergy，anddischargedroughly，butinmanywaysefficiently，thedutieswhichwerealsopartoftheirproperty。Thenoblemanoreventhesquirewasmorethananindividual；asheadofafamilyhewasalifetenantofestateswhichhedesiredtotransmittohisdescendants。Hewasa’corporationsole’
andhadsomeofthespiritofacorporation。Acollegeorahospitalisfoundedtodischargeaparticularfunction；itsmemberscontinueperhapstorecognisetheirduty；buttheyresentanyinterferencefromoutsideassacrilegeorconfiscation。Itisforthemalonetojudgehowtheycanbestcarryout，andwhethertheyareactuallycarryingout，theaimsofthecorporatelife。
Inthesamewaythegreatnobletookhispartinlegislation，churchpreferment，thecommandofthearmy，andsoforth，andfullyadmittedthathewasboundinhonourtoplayhisparteffectively；buthewasequallyconvincedthathewassubjecttonothingoutsideofhissenseofhonour。Hisdutieswerealsohisrights。Thenaï；fexpressionofthisdoctrinebyagreatboroughproprietor，’MayInotdowhatIlikewithmyown?’wastobecomeproverbial。29*
This，finally，suggeststhatadoctrineof’individualism’isimpliedthroughout。Theindividualrightsaretheantecedentandtherightsofthestateaconsequentorcorollary。Everymanhascertainsacredrightsaccruingtohiminvirtueof’prescription’ortradition，throughhisinheritedpositioninthesocialorganism。The’ruleoflaw’securesthatheshallexercisethemwithoutinfringingtheprivilegesofhisneighbour。Hemaymoreoverbecompelledbythelawtodischargethemondueoccasion。But，asthereisnosupremebodywhichcansufficientlysuperintend，stimulate，promote，ordismiss，theactiveimpulsemustcomechieflyfromhisownsenseofthefitnessofthings。Theefficiencythereforedependsuponhisbeinginsuchapositionthathisdutymaycoincidewithhispersonalinterest。Thepoliticalmachinerycanonlyworkefficientlyontheassumptionofaspontaneousactivityoftherulingclasses，promptedbypublicspiritorasenseofpersonaldignity。
Meanwhile，’individualism’inadifferentsensewasrepresentedbytheforceswhichmadeforprogressratherthanorder，andtothemImustnowturn。
NOTES：
1。22GeorgeIII。c。82。
2。Parl。Hist。xxx，787。
3。StateTrials，xxiv，382。
4。Parl。Hist。xxv，472。
5。Thecountry-gentlemen，saidWilberforcein1800，arethe’verynervesandligaturesofthebodypolitic。’——Correspondence，i。219。
6。Gneist’sSelf-Government，3rdedition，1871，p。879。
7。SeeDictionaryofNationalBiography。
8。TheLawoftheConstitution，p209。
9。SeeSirJ。F。Stephen’sHistoryoftheCriminalLaw1883，i。470。
HequotesBlackstone’sfamousstatementthattherewere160felonieswithoutbenefitofclergy，andshowsthatthisgivesaveryuncertainmeasureoftheseverityofthelaw。Asingleactmakinglarcenyingeneralpunishablebydeathwouldbemoreseverethanfiftyseparateacts，makingfiftydifferentvarietiesoflarcenypunishablebydeath。Headds，however，thattheschemeofpunishmentwas’severetothehighestdegree，anddestituteofeverysortofprincipleorsystem。’Thenumberofexecutionsintheearlypartofthiscenturyvariedapparentlyfromafifthtoaninthoftbecapitalsentencespassed。SeetableinPorter’sProgressoftheNation1851，p。635。
10。SeethereferencestoCottu’sreportof1822inStephen’sHistory，i。429，439，451。Cottu’sbookwastranslatedbyBlancoWhite。
11。Gneist’sSelf-Government1871，p。194。ItischaracteristicthatJ。S。Mill，inhisRepresentativeGovernment，remarksthatthe’QuarterSessions’
areformedinthe’mostanomalous’way；thattheyrepresenttheoldfeudalprinciple，andareatvariancewiththefundamentalprinciplesofrepresentativegovernmentRep。Gov。1867，p。113。Themainspringoftheoldsystemhadbecomeasimpleanomalytothenewradicalism。
12。SeeArthurYoung，passim。therewas，however，animprovementeveninthefirsthalfofthecentury。SeeCunningham’sGrowthofEnglishIndustry，etc。ModernTimes，p。378。
13。SeeMilitaryForcesoftheCrown，byCharlesM。Clode1869，forafullaccountofthefacts。
14。Parl。Hist。xxx。490。Clodestatesi。222that£；9，000，000wasspentuponbarracksby1804，and，itseems，withoutproperauthority。
15。DebateinParl。Hist。xiii。1382，etc。，andseeWalpole’sCorrespondence，i。400，forsomecharacteristiccomments。
16。Clode，ii。86。
17。Seethefamouscasein1778inwhichErskinemadehisfirstappearance，inStateTrials，xxi。LordSt。Vincent’sstruggleagainstthecorruptionofhistimeisdescribedbyProfLaughtonintheDictionaryofNationalBiography，s。v。SirJohnJervis。In1801halfamillionayearwasstolen，besidesallthewasteduetocorruptionandgeneralmuddling。
18。Thelist，checkedfromothersourcesofinformation，isasfollows：——
MannersSutton，archbishopofCanterbury，wasgrandsonofthethirddukeofRutland；EdwardVernon，archbishopofYork，wassonofthefirstLordVernonandcousinofthethirdLordHarcourt，whoseestatesheinherited；
ShuteBarrington，bishopofDurham，wassonofthefirstandbrotherofthesecondViscountBarrington；BrownlowNorth，bishopofWinchester，wasuncletotheearlofGuildford；JamesCornwallis，bishopofLichfield，wasuncletothesecondmarquis，whosepeerageheinherited；GeorgePelham，bishopofExeter，wasbrotheroftheearlofChichester；HenryBathurst，bishopofNorwich，wasnephewofthefirstearl；GeorgeHenryLaw，bishopofChester，wasbrotherofthefirstLordEllenborough；EdwardLegge，bishopofOxford，wassonofthesecondearlofDartmouth；HenryRyder，bishopofGloucester，wasbrothertotheearlofHarrowby；GeorgeMurray，bishopofSodorandMan，wasnephew。in。lawtothedukeofAtholandbrother-in-lawtotheearlofKinnoul。Ofthefourteentutors，etc。，mentionedabove，WilliamHowley，bishopofLondon，hadbeentutortotheprinceofOrangeatOxford；GeorgePretymanTomline，bishopofLincoln，hadbeenPitt’stutoratCambridge；RichardBeadon，bishopofBathandWells，hadbeentutortothedukeofGloucesteratCambridge；
FolliottCornewall，bishopofWorcester，hadbeenmadechaplaintotheHouseofCommonsbytheinfluenceofhiscousin，theSpeaker；JohnBuckner，bishopofChichester，hadbeentutortothedukeofRichmond；HenryWilliamMajendie，bishopofBangor，wasthesonofQueenCharlotte’sEnglishmaster，andhadbeentutortoWilliamIV，GeorgeIsaacHuntingford，bishopofHereford，hadbeentutortoAddington，primeminister，ThomasBurgess，bishopofSt。David’s，wasapersonalfriendofAddington，JohnFisher，bishopofSalisbury，hadbeentutortothedukeofKent；JohnLuxmoore，bishopofSt。Asaph，hadbeentutortothedukeofBuccleugh，SamuelGoodenough，bishopofCarlisle，hadbeentutortothesonsofthethirddukeofPortlandandwasconnectedwithAddington；WilliamLortMansel，bishopofBristol，hadbeentutortoPercevalatCambridge，andowedtoPercevalthemastershipoftrinity，WalterKing，bishopofRochester，hadbeensecretarytothedukeofPortland，andBowyerEdwardSparke，bishopofEly，hadbeentutortothedukeofRutland。thetworemainingbishopswereHerbertMarsh，bishopofPeterborough，whohadestablishedaclaimbydefendingPitt’sfinancialmeasuresinanimportantpamphlet，andWilliamVanMildert，bishopofLlandaff，whohadbeenchaplaintotheGrocers’CompanyandbecameknownasapreacherinLondon。
19。TravelsinFrance1892，p。327。
20。SeeACountryClergymanoftheEighteenthCenturyThomasTwining，1882，forapleasantpictureoftheclass。
21。AtCambridgesubscriptionwasabolishedforundergradutesin1775；
andbachelorsofartshadonlytodeclarethemselves’bona-fidemembersofthechurchofEngland。’
22。GilbertWakefield’sMemoirs，ii。149。
23。DeQuincey，Works1863，ii。106。
24。Wordsworth’sUniversityLife，etc。1874，83-87。
25。ProfessorDicey’sLecturesontheLawoftheConstitution1885，p。278。ProfessorDiceygivesanadmirableexpositionofthe’ruleoflaw。’
26。PollockandMaitland’sHistoryofEnglishLaws，i，208。
27。AcharacteristicconsequenceisthatHaleandBlackstonemakenodistinctionbetweenpublicandprivatelaw。AustinJurisprudence1869，773-76applaudsthemforthispeculiarity，whichheregardsasaproofoforiginality，thoughitwouldratherseemtobeanacceptanceofthetraditionalview。Austin，however，retortsthechargeofVerwirrunguponGermancritics。
28。ThisisthetheoryofDefoeinhisOriginalPowerofthePeopleofEnglandWorksbyHazlitt，vol。iii。Seeespeciallyp。57。
29。ThefourthdukeofNewcastleintheHouseofLords，3Dec。1830。