PrefacePrefaceINOWoffertothepublicanotherportionofthe
laboursdevolvedonmeintheexecutionofthedutiesoftheDaneProfessorship
ofLawinHarvardUniversity。Theimportanceofthesubjectwillhardlybe
doubledbyanypersons，whohavebeenaccustomedtodeepreflectionuponthe
natureandvalueoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates。Icanonlyregret，
thatithasnotfallenintoablerhands，withmoreleisuretoprepare，andmore
variousknowledgetobringtosuchatask。
Imperfect，however，astheseCommentariesmayseemtothose，whoare
accustomedtodemandaperfectfinishinallelementaryworks，theyhavebeen
attendedwithadegreeofuninvitinglabour，anddryresearch，ofwhichitis
scarcelypossibleforthegeneralreadertoformanyadequateestimate。Manyof
thematerialslaylooseandscattered；andweretobegatheredupamong
pamphletsanddiscussionsofatemporarycharacter；amongobscureprivateand
publicdocuments；andfromcollections，whichrequiredanexhaustingdiligence
tomastertheircontents，ortoselectfromunimportantmasses，afewfacts，or
asolitaryargument。Indeed，itrequirednosmalllabour，evenafterthese
sourceswereexplored，tobringtogethertheirregularfragments，andtoform
themintogroups，inwhichtheymightillustrateandsupporteachother。
Fromtwogreatsources，however，Ihavedrawnbyfarthegreatestpartofmy
mostvaluablematerials。Theseare，TheFederalist，anincomparablecommentary
ofthreeofthegreateststatesmenoftheirage；andtheextraordinary
JudgementsofMr。ChiefJusticeMarshalluponconstitutionallaw。Theformer
havediscussedthestructureandorganizationofthenationalgovernment，inall
itsdepartments，withadmirablefulnessandforce。Thelatterhasexpoundedthe
applicationandlimitsoritspowersandfunctionswithunrivalledprofoundness
andfelicity。TheFederalistcoulddolittlemore，thanstatetheobjectsand
generalbearingofthesepowersandfunctions。Themasterlyreasoningofthe
ChiefJusticehasfollowedthemouttotheirultimateresultsandboundaries，
withaprecisionandclearness，approaching，asnearasmaybe，tomathematical
demonstration。TheFederalist，beingwrittentomeetthemostprevalentpopular
objectionsatthetimeoftheadoptionoftheConstitution，hasnotattemptedto
pursueanyveryexactorderinitsreasonings；buthastakenupsubjectsinsuch
amanner，aswasbestadaptedatthetimetoovercomeprejudices，andwin
favour。Topics，therefore，havinganaturalconnexion，aresometimesseparated；
andillustrationsappropriatetoseveralimportantpoints，aresometimes
presentedinanincidentaldiscussion。Ihavetransferredintomyownpagesall，
whichseemedtobeofpermanentimportanceinthatgreatwork；andhavethereby
endeavouredtomakeitsmeritsmoregenerallyknown。
Thereadermustnotexpecttofindinthesepagesanynovelviews，andnovel
constructionsoftheConstitution。Ihavenottheambitiontobetheauthorof
anynewplanofinterpretingthetheoryoftheConstitution，orofenlargingor
narrowingitspowersbyingenioussubtletiesandlearneddoubts。Myobjectwill
besufficientlyattained，ifIshallhavesucceededinbringingbeforethe
readerthetrueviewofitspowersmaintainedbyitsfoundersandfriends，and
confirmedandillustratedbytheactualpracticeofthegovernment。The
expositionstobefoundintheworkarelesstoberegarded，asmyownopinions，
thanasthoseofthegreatminds，whichframedtheConstitution，orwhichhave
beenfromtimetotimecalledupontoadministerit。Unionsubjectsof
governmentithasalwaysappearedtome，thatmetaphysicalrefinementsareout
ofplace。Aconstitutionofgovernmentisaddressedtothecommonsenseofthe
people；andneverwasdesignedfortrialsoflogicalskill，orvisionary
speculation。
Thereaderwillsometimesfindthesametrainofreasoningbroughtbefore
himindifferentpartsoftheseCommentaries。
Itwasindispensabletodoso，unlessthediscussionwasleftimperfect，or
thereaderwasreferredbacktootherpages，togatherupandcombinedisjointed
portionsofreasoning。Incases，whichhaveundergonejudicialinvestigation，or
whichconcernthejudicialdepartment，Ihavefeltmyselfrestrictedtomore
narrowdiscussions，thanintherestofthework；andhavesometimescontented
myselfwithameretranscriptfromthejudgmentsofthecourt。Itmayreadilybe
understood，thatthiscoursehasbeenadoptedfromasolicitude，nottogo
incidentallybeyondthelinepointedoutbytheauthorities。
Indismissingthework，Icannotbutsolicittheindulgenceofthepublic
foritsomissionsanddeficiencies。Withmorecopiousmaterialsitmighthave
beenmademoreexact，aswellasmoresatisfactory。Withmoreleisureandmore
learningitmighthavebeenwroughtupmoreinthespiritofpolitical
philosophy。Suchasitis，itmaynotbewhollyuseless，asameansof
stimulatingablermindstoamorethoroughreviewofthewholesubject；andof
impressinguponAmericansareverentialattachmenttotheConstitution，asin
thehighestsensethepalladiumofAmericanliberty。
January，1833。JosephStory：CommentariesontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates：
DedicationDedicationTOTHE
HONORABLEJOHNMARSHALL，LL。D。，CHIEFJUSTICEOFTHEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA。
SIR，Iaskthefavourofdedicatingthisworktoyou。Iknownot，towhomit
couldwithsomuchproprietybededicated，astoone，whoseyouthwasengagedin
thearduousenterprisesoftheRevolution；whosemanhoodassistedinframingand
supportingthenationalConstitution；andwhosematureryearshavebeendevoted
tothetaskofunfoldingitspowers，andillustratingitsprinciples。When，
indeed，Ilookbackuponyourjudiciallaboursduringaperiodofthirty—two
years，itisdifficulttosuppressastonishmentattheirextentandvariety，and
attheexactlearning，theprofoundreasoning，andthesolidprinciples，which
theyeverywheredisplay。OtherJudgeshaveattainedanelevatedreputationby
similarlaboursinasingledepartmentofjurisprudence。Butinonedepartment，
itneedsscarcelybesaid，thatIalludetothatofconstitutionallaw，the
commonconsentofyourcountrymenhasadmittedyoutostandwithoutarival。
Posteritywillassuredlyconfirmbyitsdeliberateaward，whatthepresentage
hasapproved，asanactofundisputedjustice。Yourexpositionsof
constitutionallawenjoyarareandextraordinaryauthority。Theyconstitutea
monumentoffamefarbeyondtheordinarymemorialsofpoliticalandmilitary
glory。Theyaredestinedtoenlighten，instruct，andconvincefuture
generations；andcanscarcelyperishbutwiththememoryoftheconstitution
itself。Theyarethevictoriesofamindaccustomedtograpplewith
difficulties，capableofunfoldingthemostcomprehensivetruthswithmasculine
simplicity，andseverelogic，andprompttodissipatetheillusionsofingenious
doubt，andsubtleargument，andimpassionedeloquence。Theyremindusofsome
mightyriverofourowncountry，which，gatheringinitscoursethe
contributionsofmanytributarystreams，poursatlastitsowncurrentintothe
ocean，deep，clear，andirresistible。
ButIconfess，thatIdwellwithevenmorepleasureupontheentiretyofa
lifeadornedbyconsistentprinciples，andfilledupinthedischargeof
virtuousduty；wherethereisnothingtoregret，andnothingtoconceal；no
friendshipsbroken；noconfidencebetrayed；notimidsurrenderstopopular
clamour；noeagerreachesforpopularfavour。Whodoesnotlistenwithconscious
pridetothetruth，thatthedisciple，thefriend，thebiographerofWashington，
stilllives，theuncompromisingadvocateofhisprinciples？
Iambuttoosensible，thattosomemindsthetimemaynotseemyettohave
arrived，whenlanguage，likethis，howevertrue，shouldmeettheeyesorthe
public。Maytheperiodbeyetfardistant，whenpraiseshallspeakoutwiththat
fulnessofutterance，whichbelongstothesanctityofthegrave。
ButIknownot，thatinthecourseofprovidencetheprivilegewillbe
allowedmehereafter，todeclare，inanysuitableformmydeepsenseofthe
obligations，whichthejurisprudenceofmycountryowestoyourlabours，or
whichIhavebeenfortwenty—oneyearsawitness，andinsomehumblemeasurea
companion。Andifanyapologyshouldberequiredformypresentfreedom，mayI
notsay，thatatyourageallreservemaywellbespared，sinceallyourlabours
mustsoonbelongexclusivelytohistory？
Allowmetoadd，thatIhaveadesirewillitbedeemedpresumptuous？to
recorduponthesepagesthememoryofafriendship，whichhasforsomanyyears
beentomeasourceofinexpressiblesatisfaction；andwhich，Iindulgethe
hope，maycontinuetoaccompanyandcheermetothecloseoflife。
Iamwiththehighestrespect，affectionatelyyourservant，JOSEPHSTORY。
Cambridge，January，1833。
CONSTITUTION
OFTHE
UNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA。
WE，thepeopleoftheUnitedStates，inordertoformamoreperfect
union，establishjustice，ensuredomestictranquillity，provideforthe
commondefence，promotethegeneralwelfare，andsecuretheblessingsof
libertytoourselvesandourposterity，doordainandestablishthis
ConstitutionfortheUnitedStatesofAmerica。
ARTICLEI。
SECTION1。
1。Alllegislativepowershereingranted，shallbevestedinacongressof
theUnitedStates，whichshallconsistofasenateandhouseof
representatives。
SECTION2。
1。Thehouseofrepresentativesshallbecomposedofmemberschosenevery
secondyearbythepeopleoftheseveralstates，andtheelectorsineach
stateshallhavethequalificationsrequisiteforelectorsofthemost
numerousbranchofthestatelegislature。
2。Nopersonshallbearepresentativewhoshallnothaveattainedtothe
ageoftwenty—fiveyears，andbeensevenyearsacitizenoftheUnited
States，andwhoshallnot，whenelected，beaninhabitantofthatstatein
whichheshallbechosen。
xviiiTHECONSTITUTION。
3。Representativesanddirecttaxesshallbeapportionedamongtheseveral
stateswhichmaybeincludedwithinthisUnion，accordingtotheir
respectivenumbers，whichshallbedeterminedbyaddingtothewholenumber
offreepersons，includingthoseboundtoserviceforatermofyears，and
excludingIndiansnottaxed，three—fifthsofallotherpersons。Theactual
enumerationshallbemadewithinthreeyearsafterthefirstmeetingofthe
congressoftheUnitedStates，andwithineverysubsequenttermoften
years，insuchmannerastheyshallbylawdirect。Thenumberof
representativesshallnotexceedoneforeverythirtythousand，buteach
stateshallhaveatleastonerepresentative；anduntilsuchenumeration
shallbemade，thestateofNewHampshireshallbeentitledtochoose
three，Massachusettseight，RhodeIslandandProvidencePlantationsone，
Connecticutfive，NewYorksix，NewJerseyfour，Pennsylvaniaeight，
Delawareone，Marylandsix，Virginiaten，NorthCarolinafive，South
Carolinafive，andGeorgiathree。
4。Whenvacancieshappenintherepresentationfromanystate，the
executiveauthoritythereofshallissuewritsofelectiontofillsuch
vacancies。
5。Thehouseofrepresentativesshallchoosetheirspeakerandother
officers；andshallhavethesolepowerofimpeachment。
SECTION3。
1。ThesenateoftheUnitedStatesshallbecomposedoftwosenatorsfrom
eachstate，chosenbythelegislaturethereof，forsixyears；andeach
senatorshallhaveonevote。
2。Immediatelyaftertheyshallbeassembledinconsequenceofthefirst
election，theyshallbedividedasequallyasmaybeintothreeclasses。
Theseatsofthesenatorsofthefirstclassshallbevacatedatthe
expirationofthesecondyear，ofthesecondclass，attheexpirationof
thefourthyear，andofthethirdclass，attheexpirationofthesixth
year，sothatone—thirdmaybechoseneverysecondyear；andifvacancies
happenbyresignation，orotherwise，duringtherecessofthelegislature
THECONSTITUTION。xix
ofanystate，theexecutivethereofmaymaketemporaryappointmentsuntil
thenextmeetingofthelegislature，whichshallthenfillsuchvacancies。
3。Nopersonshallbeasenatorwhoshallnothaveattainedtotheageof
thirtyyears，andbeennineyearsacitizenortheUnitedStates，andwho
shallnot，whenelected，beaninhabitantofthatstateforwhichheshall
bechosen。
4。Thevice—presidentoftheUnitedStatesshallbepresidentofthe
senate，butshallhavenovote，unlesstheybeequallydivided。
5。Thesenateshallchoosetheirotherofficers，andalsoapresidentpro
temporeintheabsenceofthevicepresident，orwhenheshallexercisethe
officeofpresidentoftheUnitedStates。
6。Thesenateshallhavethesolepowertotryallimpeachments。When
sittingforthatpurpose，theyshallbeonoathoraffirmation。Whenthe
presidentoftheUnitedStatesistried，thechiefjusticeshallpreside；
andnopersonshallbeconvictedwithouttheconcurrenceoftwo—thirdsof
thememberspresent。
7。Judgmentincasesofimpeachmentshallnotextendfurtherthanto
removalfromoffice，anddisqualificationtoholdandenjoyanyofficeof
honour，trust，orprofit，undertheUnitedStates；butthepartyconvicted
shallneverthelessbeliableandsubjecttoindictment，trial，judgment，
andpunishment，accordingtolaw。
SECTION4。
1。Thetimes，places，andmannerofholdingelectionsforsenatorsand
representatives，shallbeprescribedineachstatebythelegislature
thereof：butthecongressmayatanytimebylaw，makeoraltersuch
regulations，exceptastotheplacesofchoosingsenators。
2。Thecongressshallassembleatleastonceineveryyear，andsuch
meetingshallbeonthefirstMondayinDecember，unlesstheyshallbylaw
appointadifferentday。
xxTHECONSTITUTION。
SECTION5。
1。Eachhouseshallbethejudgeoftheelections，returns，and
qualificationsofitsownmembers，andamajorityofeachshallconstitute
aquorumtodobusiness；butasmallernumbermayadjournfromdaytoday，
andmaybeauthorizedtocompeltheattendanceofabsentmembers，insuch
manner，andundersuchpenaltiesaseachhousemayprovide。
2。Eachhousemaydeterminetherulesofitsproceedings，punishits
membersfordisorderlybehaviour，and，withtheconcurrenceoftwo—thirds，
expelamember。
3。Eachhouseshallkeepajournalofitsproceedings，andfromtimeto
timepublishthesame，exceptingsuchpartsasmay，intheirjudgment，
requiresecrecy；andtheyeasandnaysofthemembersofeitherhouseon
anyquestion，shall，atthedesireofone—fifthofthosepresent，be
enteredontheJournal。
4。Neitherhouse，duringthesessionofcongress，shall，withoutthe
consentoftheother，adjournformorethanthreedays，nortoanyother
placethanthatinwhichthetwohousesshallbesitting。
SECTION6。
1。Thesenatorsandrepresentativesshallreceiveacompensationfortheir
services，tobeascertainedbylaw，andpaidoutofthetreasuryofthe
UnitedStates。Theyshall，inallcases，excepttreason，felony，andbreach
ofthepeace，beprivilegedfromarrestduringtheirattendanceatthe
sessionoftheirrespectivehouses，andingoingto，andreturningfrom，
thesame；andforanyspeechordebateineitherhouse，theyshallnotbe
questionedinanyotherplace。
2。Nosenatororrepresentativeshall，duringthetimeforwhichhewas
elected，beappointedtoanycivilofficeundertheauthorityoftheUnited
States，whichshallhavebeencreated，ortheemolumentswhereofshallhave
beenincreasedduringsuchtime；andnopersonholdinganyofficeunderthe
UnitedStates，shallbeamemberofeitherhouseduringhiscontinuancein
office。
THECONSTITUTION。xxi
SECTION7。
1。Allbillsforraisingrevenueshalloriginateinthehouseof
representatives；butthesenatemayproposeorconcurwithamendmentsason
otherbills。
2。Everybillwhichshallhavepassedthehouseofrepresentativesandthe
senate，shall，beforeitbecomealaw，bepresentedtothepresidentofthe
UnitedStates；ifheapproveheshallsignit，butifnotheshallreturn
it，withhisobjections，tothathouseinwhichitshallhaveoriginated，
whoshallentertheobjectionsatlargeontheirjournal，andproceedto
reconsiderit。Ifaftersuchreconsiderationtwo—thirdsofthathouseshall
agreetopassthebill，itshallbesent，togetherwiththeobjections，to
theotherhouse，bywhichitshalllikewisebereconsidered，andif
approvedbytwo—thirdsofthathouse，itshallbecomealaw。Butinall
suchcasesthevotesofbothhousesshallbedeterminedbyyeasandnays，
andthenamesofthepersonsvotingforandagainstthebillshallbe
enteredonthejournalofeachhouserespectively。Ifanybillshallnotbe
returnedbythepresidentwithintendays，Sundaysexcepted，afterit
shallhavebeenpresentedtohim，thesameshallbealaw，inlikemanner
asifhehadsignedit，unlessthecongressbytheiradjournmentprevent
itsreturn，inwhichcaseitshallnotbealaw。
3。Everyorder，resolution，orvote，towhichtheconcurrenceofthe
senateandhouseofrepresentativesmaybenecessary，exceptonaquestion
ofadjournment，shallbepresentedtothepresidentoftheUnitedStates；
andbeforethesameshalltakeeffect，shallbeapprovedbyhim，orbeing
disapprovedbyhim，shallbere—passedbytwo—thirdsofthesenateand
houseofrepresentatives，accordingtotherulesandlimitationsprescribed
inthecaseofabill。
SECTION8。
Thecongressshallhavepower
1。Tolayandcollecttaxes，duties，imposts，andexcises，topaythe
debtsandprovideforthecommondefenceandgen—
xxiiTHECONSTITUTION。
eralwelfareoftheUnitedStates；butallduties，imposts，andexcises，
shallbeuniformthroughouttheUnitedStates：
2。ToborrowmoneyonthecreditoftheUnitedStates：
3。Toregulatecommercewithforeignnations，andamongtheseveral
states，andwiththeIndiantribes：
4。Toestablishanuniformruleofnaturalization，anduniformlawsonthe
subjectofbankruptciesthroughouttheUnitedStates：
5。Tocoinmoney，regulatethevaluethereof，andofforeigncoin，andfix
thestandardofweightsandmeasures：
6。Toprovideforthepunishmentofcounterfeitingthesecuritiesand
currentcoinoftheUnitedStates：
7。Toestablishpost—officesandpost—roads：
8。Topromotetheprogressofscienceandusefularts，bysecuring，for
limitedtimes，toauthorsandinventorstheexclusiverighttotheir
respectivewritingsanddiscoveries：
9。ToconstitutetribunalsinferiortotheSupremeCourt：
10。Todefineandpunishpiracies，andfelonies，committedonthehigh
seas，andoffencesagainstthelawofnations：
11。Todeclarewar，grantlettersofmarqueandreprisal，andmakerules
concerningcapturesonlandandwater：
12。Toraiseandsupportarmies，butnoappropriationofmoneytothatuse
shallbeforalongertermthantwoyears：
13。Toprovideandmaintainanavy：
14。Tomakerulesforthegovernmentandregulationofthelandandnaval
forces：
15。Toprovideforcallingforththemilitiatoexecutethelawsofthe
Union，suppressinsurrections，andrepelinvasions：
16。Toprovidefororganizing，arminganddiscipliningthemilitia，and
forgoverningsuchpartofthemasmaybeemployedintheserviceofthe
UnitedStates，reservingtothestatesrespectively，theappointmentofthe
officers，andtheauthorityoftrainingthemilitiaaccordingtothe
disciplineprescribedbycongress：
17。Toexerciseexclusivelegislationinallcaseswhatsoever，oversuch
districtnotexceedingtenmilessquareasmay，bycessionofparticular
states，andacceptanceofcongress，
THECONSTITUTION。xxiii
becometheseatofthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates，andtoexercise
likeauthorityoverallplacespurchasedbytheconsentofthelegislature
ofthestateinwhichthesameshallbe，fortheerectionofforts，
magazines，arsenals，dock—yards，andotherneedfulbuildings：——And
18。Tomakealllawswhichshallbenecessaryandproperforcarryinginto
executiontheforegoingpowers，andallotherpowersvestedbythis
ConstitutioninthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates，orinanydepartment
orofficerthereof。
SECTION9。
1。Themigrationorimportationofsuchpersons，asanyofthestatesnow
existingshallthinkpropertoadmit，shallnotbeprohibitedbythe
congresspriortotheyearonethousandeighthundredandeight，butatax
ordutymaybeimposedonsuchimportation，notexceedingtendollarsfor
eachperson。
2。Theprivilegeofthewritofhabeascorpusshallnotbesuspended，
unlesswhenincasesofrebellionorinvasionthepublicsafetymayrequire
it。
3。Nobillofattainderorexpostfactolawshallbepassed。
4。Nocapitation，orotherdirecttaxshallbelaid，unlessinproportion
tothecensusorenumerationhereinbeforedirectedtobetaken。
5。Notaxordutyshallbelaidonarticlesexportedfromanystate。No
preferenceshallbegivenbyanyregulationofcommerceorrevenuetothe
portsofonestateoverthoseofanother；norshallvesselsboundto，or
from，onestate，beobligedtoenter，clear，orpayduties，inanother。
6。Nomoneyshallbedrawnfromthetreasury，butinconsequenceof
appropriationsmadebylaw；andaregularstatementandaccountofthe
receiptsandexpendituresofallpublicmoneyshallbepublishedfromtime
totime。
7。NotitleofnobilityshallbegrantedbytheUnitedStates：
Andnopersonholdinganyofficeofprofitortrustunderthem，shall，
withouttheconsentofthecongress，acceptofanypresent，emolument，
office，ortitleofanykindwhateverfromanyking，prince，orforeign
state。
xxviTHECONSTITUTION。
SECTION10。
1。Nostateshallenterintoanytreaty，alliance，orconfederation；grant
lettersofmarqueandreprisal；coinmoney；emitbillsofcredit；makeany
thingbutgoldandsilvercoinatenderinpaymentofdebts；passanybill
ofattainder，expostfactolaw，orlawimpairingtheobligationof
contracts，orgrantanytitleofnobility。
2。Nostateshall，withouttheconsentofthecongress，layanyimpostsor
dutiesonimportsorexports，exceptwhatmaybeabsolutelynecessaryfor
executingitsinspectionlaws；andthenetproduceofalldutiesand
imposts，laidbyanystateonimportsorexports，shallbefortheuseof
thetreasuryoftheUnitedStates；andallsuchlawsshallbesubjectto
therevisionandcontrolofthecongress。Nostateshall，withoutthe
consentofcongress，layanydutyoftonnage，keeptroops，orshipsofwar，
intimeofpeace，enterintoanyagreementorcompactwithanotherstate，
orwithaforeignpower，orengageinwar，unlessactuallyinvaded，orin
suchimminentdangeraswillnotadmitofdelay。
ARTICLEII。
SECTION1。
l。TheexecutivepowershallbevestedinapresidentoftheUnitedStates
ofAmerica。Heshallholdhisofficeduringthetermoffouryears，and
togetherwiththevice—president，chosenforthesameterm，beelectedas
follows：
2。Eachstateshallappoint，insuchmannerasthelegislaturethereofmay
direct，anumberofelectorsequaltothewholenumberofsenatorsand
representativestowhichthestatemaybeentitledinthecongress：butno
senatororrepresentative，orpersonholdinganofficeoftrustorprofit
undertheUnitedStates，shallbeappointedanelector。
3。Theelectorsshallmeetintheirrespectivestates，andvotebyballot
fortwopersons，ofwhomoneatleastshallnotbeaninhabitantofthe
samestatewiththemselves。Andtheyshallmakealistofallthepersons
votedfor，andofthenumberofvotesforeach；whichlisttheyshallsign
andcertify，
THECONSTITUTION。xxv
andtransmit，sealed，totheseatofthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates，
directedtothepresidentofthesenate。Thepresidentofthesenateshall，
inthepresenceofthesenateandhouseofrepresentatives，openallthe
certificates，andthevotesshallthenbecounted。Thepersonhavingthe
greatestnumberofvotesshallbethepresident，ifsuchnumberbea
majorityofthewholenumberofelectorsappointed；andiftherebemore
thanonewhohavesuchmajority，andhaveanequalnumberofvotes，then
thehouseofrepresentativesshallimmediatelychoosebyballotoneofthem
forpresident；andifnopersonhaveamajority，then，fromthefive
highestonthelistthesaidhouseshallinlikemannerchoosethe
president。Butinchoosingthepresidentthevotesshallbetakenby
states，therepresentationfromeachstatehavingonevote；aquorumfor
thispurposeshallconsistofamemberormembersfromtwo—thirdsofthe
states，andamajorityofallthestatesshallbenecessarytoachoice。In
everycase，afterthechoiceofthepresident，thepersonhavingthe
greatestnumberofvotesoftheelectorsshallbethevice—president。But
ifthereshouldremaintwoormorewhohaveequalvotes，thesenateshall
choosefromthembyballotthevice—president。
4。Thecongressmaydeterminethetimeofchoosingtheelectors，andthe
dayonwhichtheyshallgivetheirvotes；whichdayshallbethesame
throughouttheUnitedStates。
5。Nopersonexceptanaturalborncitizen，oracitizenoftheUnited
States，atthetimeoftheadoptionofthisConstitution，shallbeeligible
totheofficeofpresident；neithershallanypersonbeeligibletothat
officewhoshallnothaveattainedtotheageofthirty—fiveyears，and
beenfourteenyearsaresidentwithintheUnitedStates。
6。Incaseoftheremovalofthepresidentfromoffice，orofhisdeath，
resignation，orinabilitytodischargethepowersanddutiesofthesaid
office，thesameshalldevolveonthevice—president，andthecongressmay
bylawprovideforthecaseofremoval，death，resignation，orinability，
bothofthepresidentandvice—president，declaringwhatofficershallthen
actaspres—
xxviTHECONSTITUTION。
ident，andsuchofficershallactaccordingly，untilthedisabilitybe
removed，orapresidentshallbeelected。
7。Thepresidentshall，atstatedtimes，receiveforhisservices，a
compensation，whichshallneitherbeincreasednordiminishedduringthe
periodforwhichheshallhavebeenelected，andheshallnotreceive
withinthatperiodanyotheremolumentfromtheUnitedStatesoranyof
them。
8。Beforeheenterontheexecutionofhisoffice，heshalltakethe
followingoathoraffirmation：
9。\"Idosolemnlyswear，oraffirm，thatIwillfaithfully\"execute
theofficeofpresidentoftheUnitedStates，andwill，\"tothebestofmy
ability，preserve，protect，anddefendthe\"ConstitutionoftheUnited
States。\"
SECTION2。
l。Thepresidentshallbecommander—in—chiefofthearmyandnavyofthe
UnitedStates，andofthemilitiaoftheseveralstates，whencalledinto
theactualserviceoftheUnitedStates；hemayrequiretheopinion，in
writing，oftheprincipalofficerineachoftheexecutivedepartments，
uponanysubjectrelatingtothedutiesoftheirrespectiveoffices，andhe
shallhavepowertograntreprievesandpardonsforoffencesagainstthe
UnitedStates，exceptincasesofimpeachment。
2。Heshallhavepowerbyandwiththeadviceandconsentofthesenate，
tomaketreaties，providedtwo—thirdsofthesenatorspresentconcur；and
heshallnominate，andbyandwiththeadviceandconsentofthesenate，
shallappointambassadors，otherpublicministersandconsuls，judgesof
thesupremecourt，andallotherofficersoftheUnitedStates，whose
appointmentsarenothereinotherwiseprovidedfor，andwhichshallbe
establishedbylaw：butthecongressmaybylawvesttheappointmentof
suchinferiorofficers，astheythinkproper，inthepresidentalone，in
thecourtsoflaw，orintheheadsofdepartments。
3。Thepresidentshallhavepowertofillupallvacanciesthatmayhappen
duringtherecessofthesenate，bygrantingcommissions，whichshall
expireattheendoftheirnextsession。
THECONSTITUTION。xxvii
SECTION3。
1。Heshallfromtimetotimegivetothecongressinformationorthe
stateoftheUnion，andrecommendtotheirconsiderationsuchmeasuresas
heshalljudgenecessaryandexpedient；hemay，onextraordinaryoccasions，
convenebothhouses，oreitherofthem，andincaseofdisagreementbetween
themwithrespecttothetimeofadjournment，hemayadjournthemtosuch
timeasheshallthinkproper；heshallreceiveambassadorsandother
publicministers；heshalltakecarethatthelawsbefaithfullyexecuted，
andshallcommissionalltheofficersoftheUnitedStates。
SECTION4。
1。Thepresident，vice—president，andallcivilofficersoftheUnited
Statesshallberemovedfromofficeonimpeachmentfor，andconvictionof，
treason，bribery，orotherhighcrimesandmisdemeanors。
ARTICLEIll。
SECTION1。
l。ThejudicialpoweroftheUnitedStates，shallbevestedinone
SupremeCourt，andinsuchinferiorcourtsasthecongressmayfromtimeto
timeordainandestablish。Thejudges，bothofthesupremeandinferior
courts，shallholdtheirofficesduringgoodbehaviour，andshall，at
statedtimes，receivefortheirservices，acompensation，whichshallnot
bediminishedduringtheircontinuanceinoffice。
SECTION2。
1。Thejudicialpowershallextendtoallcases，inlawandequity，
arisingunderthisConstitution，thelawsoftheUnitedStates，and
treatiesmade，orwhichshallbemade，undertheirauthority；toallcases
affectingambassadors，otherpublicministersandconsuls；toallcasesof
admiraltyandmaritimejurisdiction；tocontroversiestowhichtheUnited
Statesshallbeaparty；tocontroversiesbetweentwoormorestates，
between
xxviiiTHECONSTITUTION。
astateandcitizensofanotherstate，betweencitizensofdifferent
states，betweencitizensofthesamestateclaiminglandsundergrantsof
differentstates，andbetweenastate，orthecitizensthereof，andforeign
states，citizens，orsubjects。
2。Inallcasesaffectingambassadors，otherpublicministersand
consuls，andthoseinwhichastateshallbeaparty，thesupremecourt
shallhaveoriginaljurisdiction。Inalltheothercasesbeforementioned，
thesupremecourtshallhaveappellatejurisdiction，bothastolawand
fact，withsuchexceptions，andundersuchregulationsasthecongress
shallmake。
3。Thetrialofallcrimes，exceptincasesofimpeachment，shallbeby
jury；andsuchtrialshallbeheldinthestatewherethesaidcrimesshall
havebeencommitted；butwhennotcommittedwithinanystate，thetrial
shallbeatsuchplaceorplacesasthecongressmaybylawhavedirected。
SECTION3。
1。TreasonagainsttheUnitedStates，shallconsistonlyinlevyingwar
againstthem，orinadheringtotheirenemies，givingthemaidandcomfort。
Nopersonshallbeconvictedoftreasonunlessonthetestimonyoftwo
witnessestothesameovertact，oronconfessioninopencourt。
2。Thecongressshallhavepowertodeclarethepunishmentoftreason，
butnoattainderoftreasonshallworkcorruptionofblood，orforfeiture，
exceptduringthelifeofthepersonattainted。
ARTICLEIV。
SECTION1。
1。Fullfaithandcreditshallbegivenineachstatetothepublicacts，
records，andjudicialproceedingsofeveryotherstate。Andthecongress
maybygenerallawsprescribethemannerinwhichsuchacts，records，and
proceedingsshallbeproved，andtheeffectthereof。
SECTION2。
1。Thecitizensofeachstateshallbeentitledtoallprivilegesand
immunitiesofcitizensintheseveralstates。
THECONSTITUTION。xxix
2。Apersonchargedinanystatewithtreason，felony，orothercrime，
whoshallfleefromjustice，andbefoundinanotherstate，shall，on
demandoftheexecutiveauthorityofthestatefromwhichhefled，be
deliveredup，toberemovedtothestatehavingjurisdictionofthecrime。
3。Nopersonheldtoserviceorlabourinonestate，underthelaws
thereof，escapingintoanother，shall，inconsequenceofanylawor
regulationtherein，bedischargedfromsuchserviceorlabour，butshallbe
delivereduponclaimofthepartytowhomsuchserviceorlabourmaybe
due。
SECTION3。
1。NewstatesmaybeadmittedbythecongressintothisUnion；butnonew
stateshallbeformedorerectedwithinthejurisdictionofanyother
state；noranystatebeformedbythejunctionoftwoormorestates，or
partsofstates，withouttheconsentofthelegislaturesofthestates
concerned，aswellasofthecongress。
2。Thecongressshallhavepowertodisposeofandmakeallneedfulrules
andregulationsrespectingtheterritoryorotherpropertybelongingtothe
UnitedStates；andnothinginthisConstitutionshallbesoconstruedasto
prejudiceanyclaimsoftheUnitedStates，orofanyparticularstate。
SECTION4。
1。TheUnitedStatesshallguaranteetoeverystateinthisUniona
republicanformofgovernment，andshallprotecteachofthemagainst
invasion；andonapplicationofthelegislature，oroftheexecutive，when
thelegislaturecannotbeconvened，againstdomesticviolence。
ARTICLEV。
1。Thecongress，whenevertwo—thirdsofbothhousesshalldeemit
necessary，shallproposeamendmentstothisConstitution，or，onthe
applicationofthelegislaturesoftwo—thirdsortheseveralstates，shall
callaconventionforproposingamendments，which，ineithercase，shallbe
validtoallintentsand
xxxTHECONSTITUTION。
purposes，aspartofthisConstitution，whenratifiedbythelegislatures
ofthree—fourthsoftheseveralstatesorbyconventionsinthree—fourths
thereof，astheoneortheothermodeofratificationmaybeproposedby
thecongress：Provided，thatnoamendment，whichmaybemadepriortothe
yearonethousandeighthundredandeight，shallinanymanneraffectthe
firstandfourthclausesintheninthsectionofthefirstarticle；and
thatnostate，withoutitsconsent，shallbedeprivedofitsequalsuffrage
inthesenate。
ARTICLEVI。
1。Alldebtscontractedandengagementsenteredinto，beforetheadoption
ofthisConstitution，shallbeasvalidagainsttheUnitedStatesunder
thisConstitution，asundertheconfederation。
2。ThisConstitution，andthelawsoftheUnitedStateswhichshallbe
madeinpursuancethereof；andalltreatiesmade，orwhichshallbemade，
undertheauthorityoftheUnitedStates，shallbethesupremelawofthe
land；andthejudgesineverystateshallbeboundthereby，anythinsin
theconstitutionorlawsofanystatetothecontrarynotwithstanding。
3。Thesenatorsandrepresentativesbeforementioned，andthemembersof
theseveralstatelegislatures，andallexecutiveandjudicialofficers，
bothoftheUnitedStatesandoftheseveralstatesshallbebound，byoath
oraffirmation，tosupportthisConstitution；butnoreligioustestshall
everberequiredasaqualificationtoanyofficeorpublictrustunderthe
UnitedStates。
ARTICLEVII。
1。Theratificationoftheconventionsofninestates，shallbe
sufficientfortheestablishmentofthisConstitutionbetweenthestatesso
ratifyingthesame。
THECONSTITUTION。xxxi
AMENDMENTSTOTHECONSTITUTION。
ARTICLEI。
Congressshallmakenolawrespectinganestablishmentofreligion，or
prohibitingthefreeexercisethereof；orabridgingthefreedomofspeech，
orofthepress；ortherightofthepeoplepeaceablytoassemble，andto
petitionthegovernmentforaredressofgrievances。
ARTICLEII。
Awellregulatedmilitiabeingnecessarytothesecurityofafreestate，
therightofthepeopletokeepandbeararmsshallnotbeinfringed。
ARTICLEIII。
Nosoldiershall，intimeofpeace，bequarteredinanyhousewithoutthe
consentoftheowner；norintimeofwar，butinamannertobeprescribed
bylaw。
ARTICLEIV。
Therightofthepeopletobesecureintheirpersons，houses，papers，and
effectsagainstunreasonablesearchesandseizures，shallnotbeviolated；
andnowarrantsshallissue，butuponprobablecause，supportedbyoathor
affirmation，andparticularlydescribingtheplacetobesearched，andthe
personsorthingstobeseized。
ARTICLEV。
Nopersonshallbeheldtoanswerforacapitalorotherwiseinfamous
crime，unlessonapresentmentorindictmentofagrandjury，exceptin
casesarisinginthelandornavalforces，orinthemilitia，whenin
actualservice，intimeofwarorpublicdanger；norshallanypersonbe
subjectforthesameoffencetobetwiceputinjeopardyoflifeorlimb；
norshall
xxxiiTHECONSTITUTION。
becompelled，inanycriminalcase，tobeawitnessagainsthimself，notbe
deprivedoflife，liberty，orproperty，withoutdueprocessoflaw；nor
shallprivatepropertybetakenforpublicusewithoutjustcompensation。
ARTICLEVI。
Inallcriminalprosecutions，theaccusedshallenjoytherighttoa
speedyandpublictrial，byanimpartialjuryofthestateanddistrict
whereinthecrimeshallhavebeencommitted，whichdistrictshallhavebeen
previouslyascertainedbylaw；andtobeinformedofthenatureandcause
oftheaccusation；tobeconfrontedwiththewitnessesagainsthim；tohave
compulsoryprocessforobtainingwitnessesinhisfavour；andtohavethe
assistanceofcounselforhisdefence。
ARTICLEVII。
Insuits—atcommonlaw，wherethevalueincontroversyshallexceedtwenty
dollars，therightoftrialbyjuryshallbepreserved；andnofacttried
byajuryshallbeotherwisereexaminedinanycourtoftheUnitedStates，
thanaccordingtotherulesofthecommonlaw。
ARTICLEVIII。
Excessivebailshallnotberequired，norexcessivefinesimposed，nor
cruelandunusualpunishmentsinflicted。
ARTICLEIX。
TheenumerationintheConstitutionofcertainrights，shallnotbe
construedtodenyordisparageothersretainedbythepeople。
ARTICLEX。
ThepowersnotdelegatedtotheUnitedStatesbytheConstitution，nor
prohibitedbyittothestates，arereservedtothestatesrespectively，or
tothepeople。
THECONSTITUTION。xxxiii
ARTICLEXI。
ThejudicialpoweroftheUnitedStatesshallnotbeconstruedtoextend
toanysuitinlaworequity，commencedorprosecutedagainstoneofthe
UnitedStatesbycitizensofanotherstate，orbycitizensorsubjectsof
anyforeignstate。
ARTICLEXII。
l。Theelectorsshallmeetintheirrespectivestates，andvotebyballot
forpresidentandvice—president，oneofwhom，atleast，shallnotbean
inhabitantofthesamestatewiththemselves；theyshallnameintheir
ballotsthepersonvotedforaspresident，andindistinctballotsthe
personvotedforasvice—president；andtheyshallmakedistinctlistsof
allpersonsvotedforaspresident，andofallpersonsvotedforas
vicepresident，andofthenumberofvotesforeach，whichliststheyshall
signandcertify，andtransmitsealedtotheseatofthegovernmentofthe
UnitedStates，directedtothepresidentofthesenate；thepresidentof
thesenateshall，inthepresenceofthesenateandhouseof
representatives，openallthecertificates，andthevotesshallthenbe
counted：thepersonhavingthegreatestnumberofvotesforpresident，
shallbethepresident，ifsuchnumberbeamajorityofthewholenumberof
electorsappointed；andifnopersonhavesuchmajority，thenfromthe
personshavingthehighestnumbers，notexceedingthree，onthelistof
thosevotedforaspresident，thehouseofrepresentativesshallchoose
immediately，byballot，thepresident。Butinchoosingthepresident，the
votesshallbetakenbystates，therepresentationfromeachstatehaving
onevote；aquorumforthispurposeshallconsistofamemberormembers
fromtwo—thirdsofthestates，andamajorityofallthestatesshallbe
necessarytoachoice。Andifthehouseofrepresentativesshallnot
chooseapresidentwhenevertherightofchoiceshalldevolveuponthem，
beforethefourthdayofMarchnextfollowing，thenthevice—president
shallactaspresident，asinthecaseofthedeathorotherconstitutional
disabilityofthepresident。
xxxivTHECONSTITUTION。
2。Thepersonhavingthegreatestnumberofvotesasvicepresident，shall
bethevice—president，ifsuchnumberbeamajorityofthewholenumberof
electorsappointed；andifnopersonhaveamajority，thenfromthetwo
highestnumbersonthelist，thesenateshallchoosethevice—president：a
quorumforthepurposeshallconsistoftwo—thirdsofthewholenumberof
senators，amajorityofthewholenumbershallbenecessarytoachoice。
3。Butnopersonconstitutionallyineligibletotheofficeofpresident，
shallbeeligibletothatofvice—presidentoftheUnitedStates。
PRELIMINARYCHAPTERPLANOFTHEWORK
TheprincipalobjectoftheseCommentariesistopresentafullanalysisandexpositionoftheConstitutionofGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica。Inordertodothiswithclearnessandaccuracy，itisnecessarytounderstand，whatwasthepoliticalpositionoftheseveralStates，composingtheUnion，inrelationtoeachotheratthetimeofitsadoption。ThiswillnaturallyconductusbacktotheAmericanRevolution；andtotheformationoftheConfederationconsequentthereon。Butifwestophere，weshallstillbesurroundedwithmanydifficultiesinregardtoourdomesticinstitutionsandpolicy，whichhavegrownoutoftransactionsofamuchearlierdate，connectedononesidewiththecommondependenceofalltheColoniesupontheBritishEmpire，andontheotherwiththeparticularchartersofgovernmentandinternallegislation，whichbelongedtoeachColony，asadistinctsovereignty，andwhichhaveimpresseduponeachpeculiarhabits，opinions，attachments，andevenprejudices。TracesofthesepeculiaritiesareeverywherediscernibleintheactualjurisprudenceofeachState；andaresilentlyoropenlyreferredtoinseveraloftheprovisionsoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates。Inshort，withoutacarefulreviewoftheoriginandconstitutionalandjuridicalhistoryofallthecolonies，oftheprinciplescommontoall，andofthediversities，whichwerenolessremarkableinall，itwouldbeimpossiblefullytounderstandthenatureandobjectsoftheConstitution；thereasonsonwhichseveralofitsmostimportantprovisionsarefounded；andthenecessityofthoseconcessionsandcompromises，whichadesiretoformasolidandperpetualUnionhasincorporatedintoitsleadingfeatures。
Theplanoftheworkwill，therefore，naturallycomprehendthreegreatdivisions。Thefirstwillembraceasketchofthecharters，constitutionalhistory，andante—revolutionaryjurisprudenceoftheColonies。ThesecondwillembraceasketchoftheconstitutionalhistoryoftheStatesduringtheRevolution，andtherise，progress，decline，andfalloftheConfederation。
ThethirdwillembracethehistoryoftheriseandadoptionoftheConstitution；
andafullexpositionofallitsprovisions，withthereasons，onwhichtheywererespectivelyfounded，theobjections，bywhichtheywererespectivelyassailed，andsuchillustrationsdrawnfromcontemporaneousdocuments，andthesubsequentoperationsofthegovernment，asmaybestenablethereadertoestimateforhimselfthetruevalueofeach。InthiswayasitishopedhisjudgmentaswellashisaffectionswillbeenlistedonthesideoftheConstitution，asthetruestsecurityoftheUnion，andtheonlysolidbasis，onwhichtoresttheprivaterights，thepublicliberties，andthesubstantialprosperityofthepeoplecomposingtheAmericanRepublic。
JosephStory：CommentariesontheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates：
Book1Chapter1BOOKI。HISTORYOFTHECOLONIES。____________________CHAPTERI。ORIGINOFTHETITLETOTERRITORYOFTHECOLONIES。§；1。THEdiscoveryoftheContinentofAmericabyColumbusinthefifteenthcenturyawakenedtheattentionofallthemaritimeStatesofEurope。Stimulatedbytheloveofglory，andstillmorebythehopeofgainanddominion，manyofthemearlyembarkedinadventurousenterprises，theobjectofwhichwastofoundcolonies，ortosearchforthepreciousmetals，ortoexchangetheproductsandmanufacturesoftheoldworldforwhateverwasmostvaluableandattractiveinthenew。1Englandwasnotbehindhercontinentalneighboursinseekingherownaggrandizement，andnourishinghertheninfantcommerce。2TheambitionofHenrytheSeventhwasrousedbythecommunicationsofColumbus，andin1495hegrantedacommissiontoJohnCabot，anenterprisingVenetian，thensettledinEngland，toproceedonavoyageofdiscovery，andtosubdueandtakepossessionofanylandsunoccupiedbyanyChristianPower，inthenameandforthebenefitoftheBritishCrown。3InthesucceedingyearCabotsailedonhisvoyage，andhavingfirstdiscoveredtheIslandsofNewfoundlandandSt。Johns，heafterwardssailedalongthecoastofthecontinentfromthe56thtothe38thdegreeofnorthlatitude；
andclaimedforhissovereignthevastregion，whichstretchesfromtheGulfofMexicotothemostnorthernregions。4
§；2。SuchistheoriginoftheBritishtitletotheterritorycomposingtheseUnitedStates。Thattitlewasfoundedontherightofdiscovery，aright，whichwasheldamongtheEuropeannationsajustandsufficientfoundation，onwhichtoresttheirrespectiveclaimstotheAmericancontinent。Whatevercontroversiesexistedamongthemandtheywerenumerousrespectingtheextentoftheirownacquisitionsabroad，theyappealedtothisastheultimatefact，bywhichtheirvariousandconflictingclaimsweretobeadjusted。Itmaynotbeeasyupongeneralreasoningtoestablishthedoctrine，thatpriorityofdiscoveryconfersanyexclusiverighttoterritory。ItwasprobablyadoptedbytheEuropeannationsasaconvenientandflexiblerule，bywhichtoregulatetheirrespectiveclaims。Foritwasobvious，thatinthemutualcontestsfordominioninnewlydiscoveredlands，therewouldsoonariseviolentandsanguinarystrugglesforexclusivepossession，unlesssomecommonprincipleshouldberecognizedbyallmaritimenationsforthebenefitofall。Nonemorereadilysuggesteditselfthantheonenowunderconsideration；andasitwasaprincipleofpeaceandrepose，ofperfectequalityorbenefitinproportiontotheactualorsupposedexpendituresandhazardsattendantuponsuchenterprises，itreceivedauniversalAcquiescence，ifnotareadyapprobation。ItbecamethebasisofEuropeanpolity，andregulatedtheexerciseoftherightsofsovereigntyandsettlementinallthecis—AtlanticPlantations。5Inrespecttodesertanduninhabitedlands，theredoesnotseemanyimportantobjection，whichcanbeurgedagainstit。Butinrespecttocountries，theninhabitedbythenatives，itisnoteasytoperceive，how，inpointofjustice，orhumanity，orgeneralconformitytothelawofnature，itcanbesuccessfullyvindicated。Asaconventionalruleitmightproperlygovernallthenations，whichrecognizeditsobligation；butitcouldhavenoauthorityovertheaboriginesofAmerica，whethergatheredintocivilizedcommunities，orscatteredinhuntingtribesoverthewilderness。Theirright，whateveritwas，ofoccupationoruse，stooduponoriginalprinciplesdeduciblefromthelawofnature，andcouldnotbejustlynarrowedorextinguishedwithouttheirownfreeconsent。
§；3。Thereisnodoubt，thattheIndiantribes，inhabitingthiscontinentatthetimeofitsdiscovery，maintainedaclaimtotheexclusivepossessionandoccupancyoftheterritorywithintheirrespectivelimits，assovereignsandabsoluteproprietorsofthesoil。Theyacknowledgednoobedience，orallegiance，orsubordinationtoanyforeignsovereignwhatsoever；andasfarastheyhavepossessedthemeans，theyhaveeversinceassertedthisplenaryrightofdominion，andyieldedituponlywhenlostbythesuperiorforceofconquest，ortransferredbyavoluntarycession。
§；4。Thisisnottheplacetoenteruponthediscussionofthequestionoftheactualmeritsofthetitlesclaimedbytherespectivepartiesuponprinciplesofnaturallaw。Thatwouldinvolvetheconsiderationofmanyniceanddelicatetopics，astothenatureandoriginofpropertyinthesoil，andtheextent，towhichcivilizedmanmaydemanditfromthesavageforusesorcultivationdifferentfrom，andperhapsmorebeneficialtosocietythantheuses，towhichthelattermaychoosetoappropriateit。Suchtopicsbelongmoreproperlytoatreatiseonnaturallaw，thantolecturesprofessingtotreatuponthelawofasinglenation。
§；5。TheEuropeannationsfoundlittledifficultyinreconcilingthemselvestotheadoptionofanyprinciple，whichgaveamplescopetotheirambition，andemployedlittlereasoningtosupportit。Theywerecontenttotakecounseloftheirinterests，theirprejudices，andtheirpassions，andfeltnonecessityofvindicatingtheirconductbeforecabinets，whichwerealreadyeagertorecogniseitsjusticeanditspolicy。TheIndianswereasavagerace，sunkinthedepthsofignoranceandheathenism。Iftheymightnotbeextirpatedfortheirwantofreligionandjustmorals，theymightbereclaimedfromtheirerrors。TheywereboundtoyieldtothesuperiorgeniusofEurope，andinexchangingtheirwildanddebasinghabitsforcivilizationandChristianitytheyweredeemedtogainmorethananequivalentforeverysacrificeandsuffering。6ThePapalauthority，too，wasbroughtinaidofthesegreatdesigns；andforthepurposeofoverthrowingheathenism，andpropagatingtheCatholicreligion，7AlexandertheSixth，byaBullissuedin1493，grantedtothecrownofCastilethewholeoftheimmenseterritorythendiscovered，ortobediscovered，betweenthepoles，sofarasitwasnotthenpossessedbyanyChristianprince。8
§；6。Theprinciple，then，thatdiscoverygavetitletothegovernment，bywhosesubjectsorbywhoseauthorityitwasmade，againstallotherEuropeangovernments，beingonceestablished，itfollowedalmostasamatterofcourse，thateverygovernmentwithinthelimitsofitsdiscoveriesexcludedallotherpersonsfromanyrighttoacquirethesoilbyanygrantwhatsoeverfromthenatives。Nonationwouldsuffereitheritsownsubjectsorthoseofanyothernationtosetuporvindicateanysuchtitle。9ItwasdeemedarightexclusivelybelongingtothegovernmentinitssovereigncapacitytoextinguishtheIndiantitle，andtoperfectitsowndominionoverthesoil，anddisposeofitaccordingtoitsowngoodpleasure。
§；7。Itmaybeasked，whatwastheeffectofthisprincipleofdiscoveryinrespecttotherightsofthenativesthemselves。IntheviewoftheEuropeansitcreatedapeculiarrelationbetweenthemselvesandtheaboriginalinhabitants。Thelatterwereadmittedtopossessapresentrightofoccupancy，oruseinthesoil，whichwassubordinatetotheultimatedominionofthediscoverer。Theywereadmittedtobetherightfuloccupantsofthesoil，withalegalaswellasjustclaimtoretainpossessionofit，andtouseitaccordingtotheirowndiscretion。Inacertainsensetheywerepermittedtoexerciserightsofsovereigntyoverit。Theymightsellortransferittothesovereign，whodiscoveredit；buttheyweredeniedtheauthoritytodisposeofittoanyotherpersons；anduntilsuchasaleortransfer，theyweregenerallypermittedtooccupyitassovereignsdefacto。Butnotwithstandingthisoccupancy，theEuropeandiscoverersclaimedandexercisedtherighttograntthesoil，whileyetinpossessionofthenatives，subjecthowevertotheirrightofoccupancy；andthetitlesograntedwasuniversallyadmittedtoconveyasufficienttitleinthesoiltothegranteesinperfectdominion，or，asitissometimesexpressedintreatisesofpubliclaw，itwasatransferofplenumetutiledominium。
§；8。ThissubjectwasdiscussedatgreatlengthinthecelebratedcaseofJohnsonv。McIntosh，8Wheat。
543；andonecannotdobetterthantranscribefromthepagesofthatreportasummaryofthehistoricalconfirmationsadducedinsupportoftheseprinciples，whichismoreclearandexactthanhaseverbeenbeforeinprint。
§；9。\"ThehistoryofAmerica，saysMr。
ChiefJusticeMarshall，indeliveringtheopinionoftheCourt，10fromitsdiscoverytothepresentday，proves，wethink，theuniversalrecognitionoftheseprinciples。\"SpaindidnotresthertitlesolelyonthegrantofthePope。Herdiscussionsrespectingboundary，withFrance，withGreatBritain，andwiththeUnitedStates，allshow，thatsheplaceditontherightsgivenbydiscovery。PortugalsustainedherclaimtotheBrazilsbythesametitle。
§；10。\"France，also，foundedhertitletothevastterritoriessheclaimedinAmericaondiscovery。Howeverconciliatoryherconducttothenativesmayhavebeen，shestillassertedherrightofdominionoveragreatextentofcountrynotactuallysettledbyFrenchmen，andherexclusiverighttoacquireanddisposeofthesoil，whichremainedintheoccupationofIndians。HermonarchclaimedallCanadaandAcadie，ascoloniesofFrance，atatimewhentheFrenchpopulationwasveryinconsiderable，andtheIndiansoccupiedalmostthewholecountry。HealsoclaimedLouisiana，comprehendingtheimmenseterritorieswateredbytheMississippi，andtherivers，whichemptyintoit，bythetitleofdiscovery。TheletterspatentgrantedtotheSieurDemonts，in1603，constitutehimLieutenantGeneral，andtherepresentativeoftheKinginAcadie，whichisdescribedasstretchingfromthe40thtothe46thdegreeofnorthlatitude，withauthoritytoextendthepoweroftheFrenchoverthatcountry，anditsinhabitants，togivelawstothepeople，totreatwiththenatives，andenforcetheobservanceoftreaties，andtoparcelout，andgivetitletolands，accordingtohisownjudgment。
§；11。\"TheStatesofHollandalsomadeacquisitionsinAmerica，andsustainedtheirrightonthecommonprincipleadoptedbyallEurope。Theyallege，aswearetoldbySmith，inhisHistoryofNew—York，thatHenryHudson，whosailed，astheysay，undertheordersoftheirEastIndiaCompany，discoveredthecountryfromtheDelawaretotheHudson，upwhichhesailedtothe43ddegreeofnorthlatitude；andthiscountrytheyclaimedunderthetitleacquiredbythisvoyage。Theirfirstobjectwascommercial，asappearsbyagrantmadetoacompanyofmerchantsin1614；butin1621，theStatesGeneralmade，aswearetoldbyMr。Smith，agrantofthecountrytotheWestIndiaCompany，bythenameofNewNetherlands。TheclaimoftheDutchwasalwayscontestedbytheEnglish；not，becausetheyquestionedthetitlegivenbydiscovery，butbecausetheyinsistedonbeingthemselvestherightfulclaimantsunderthattitle。Theirpretensionswerefinallydecidedbythesword。
§；12。\"NooneofthepowersofEuropegaveitsfullassenttothisprinciple，moreunequivocallythanEngland。
Thedocumentsuponthissubjectareampleandcomplete。Soearlyastheyear1496，hermonarchgrantedacommissiontotheCabots，todiscovercountriesthenunknowntoChristianpeople，andtotakepossessionoftheminthenameofthekingofEngland。Twoyearsafterwards，Cabotproceededonthisvoyage，anddiscoveredthecontinentofNorthAmerica，alongwhichhesailedasfarsouthasVirginia。TothisdiscoverytheEnglishtracetheirtitle。InthisfirsteffortmadebytheEnglishgovernmenttoacquireterritoryonthiscontinent，weperceiveacompleterecognitionoftheprinciple，whichhasbeenmentioned。Therightofdiscoverygivenbythiscommissionisconfinedtocountries’thenunknowntoallChristianpeople；’
andofthesecountriesCabotwasempoweredtotakepossessioninthenameofthekingofEngland。Thusassertingarighttotakepossession，notwithstandingtheoccupancyofthenatives，whowereheathens，and，atthesametime，admittingthepriortitleofanyChristianpeople，whomayhavemadeapreviousdiscovery。
§；13。\"Thesameprinciplecontinuedtoberecognized。ThechartergrantedtoSirHumphreyGilbert，in1578，authorizeshimtodiscoverandtakepossessionofsuchremote，heathen，andbarbarouslands，aswerenotactuallypossessedbyanyChristianprinceorpeople。
ThischarterwasafterwardsrenewedtoSirWalterRaleigh，innearlythesameterms。
§；14。\"Bythecharterof1606，underwhichthefirstpermanentEnglishsettlementonthiscontinentwasmade，JamestheFirstgrantedtoSirThomasGatesandothers，thoseterritoriesinAmericalyingontheseacoastbetweenthe34thand45thdegreesofnorthlatitude，andwhicheitherbelongedtothatmonarch，orwerenotthenpossessedbyanyotherChristianprinceorpeople。Thegranteesweredividedintotwocompaniesattheirownrequest。Thefirst，orsoutherncolony，wasdirectedtosettlebetweenthe34thand41stdegreesofnorthlatitude；
andthesecond，ornortherncolony，betweenthe38thand45thdegrees。
§；15。\"In1609，aftersomeexpensiveandnotverysuccessfulattemptsatsettlementhadbeenmade，anewandmoreenlargedcharterwasgivenbythecrowntothefirstcolony，inwhichthekinggrantedtothe’TreasurerandCompanyofAdventurersofthecityofLondonforthefirstcolonyinVirginia，’inabsoluteproperty，thelandsextendingalongthesea—coastfourhundredmiles，andintothelandthroughoutfromseatosea。Thischarter，whichisapartofthespecialverdictinthiscause，wasannulled，sofarasrespectedtherightsofthecompany，bythejudgmentoftheCourtofKing’sBenchonawritofquowarranto；butthewholeeffectallowedtothisjudgmentwas，torevestinthecrownthepowersofgovernment，andthetitletothelandswithinitslimits。
§；16。\"Attheassociationofthosewhoheldunderthegranttothesecondornortherncolony，anewandmoreenlargedcharterwasgrantedtotheDukeofLenoxandothers，in1620，whoweredenominatedthePlymouthCompany，conveyingtotheminabsolutepropertyallthelandsbetweenthe40thand48thdegreesofnorthlatitude。Underthispatent，New—Englandhasbeeninagreatmeasuresettled。ThecompanyconveyedtoHenryRosewellandothers，in1627，thatterritorywhichisnowMassachusetts；and，in1628，acharterofincorporation，comprehendingthepowersofgovernment，wasgrantedtothepurchasers。AgreatpartofNew—Englandwasgrantedbythiscompany，which，atlength，dividedtheirremaininglandsamongthemselves；and，in1635，surrenderedtheirchartertothecrown。ApatentwasgrantedtoGorgesforMaine，whichwasallottedtohiminthedivisionofproperty。AllthegrantsmadebythePlymouthCompany，sofaraswecanlearn，havebeenrespected。
§；17。\"Inpursuanceofthesameprinciple，theking，in1664，grantedtotheDukeofYorkthecountryofNew—EnglandasfarsouthastheDelawarebay。HisroyalhighnesstransferredNew—JerseytoLordBerkeleyandSirGeorgeCarteret。
§；18。\"In1663，thecrowngrantedtoLordClarendonandothers，thecountrylyingbetweenthe36thdegreeofnorthlatitudeandtheriverSt。Mathes；and，in1666，theproprietorsobtainedfromthecrownanewcharter，grantingtothemthatprovinceintheking’sdominionsinNorthAmerica，whichliesfrom36degrees30minutesnorthlatitudetothe29thdegree，andfromtheAtlanticoceantotheSouthsea。
§；19。\"ThushasourwholecountrybeengrantedbythecrownwhileintheoccupationoftheIndians。Thesegrantspurporttoconveythesoil，aswellastherightofdominiontothegrantees。
Inthosegovernments，whichweredenominatedroyal，weretherighttothesoilwasnotvestedinindividuals，butremainedinthecrown，orwasvestedinthecolonialgovernment，thekingclaimedandexercisedtherightofgranting，lands，andofdismemberingthegovernmentathiswill。Thegrantsmadeoutofthetwooriginalcolonies，aftertheresumptionoftheirchartersbythecrown，areexamplesofthis。ThegovernmentsofNew—England，New—York，New—Jersey，Pennsylvania，Maryland，andapartofCarolina，werethuscreated。
Inallofthem，thesoil，atthetimethegrantsweremade，wasoccupiedbytheIndians。Yetalmosteverytitlewithinthosegovernmentsisdependentonthesegrants。Insomeinstances，thesoilwasconveyedbythecrownunaccompaniedbythepowersofgovernment，asinthecaseofthenorthernneckofVirginia。Ithasneverbeenobjectedtothis，ortoanyothersimilargrant，thatthetitleaswellaspossessionwasintheIndianswhenitwasmade，andthatitpassednothingonthataccount。
§；20。\"Thesevariouspatentscannotbeconsideredasnullities；norcantheybelimitedtoameregrantofthepowersofgovernment。Acharter，intendedtoconveypoliticalpoweronly，wouldnevercontainwordsexpresslygranting，theland，thesoil，andthewaters。Someofthempurporttoconveythesoilalone；andinthosecases，inwhichthepowersofgovernment，aswellasthesoil，areconveyedtoindividuals，thecrownhasalwaysacknowledgeditselftobeboundbythegrant。Thoughthepowertodismemberregalgovernmentswasassertedandexercised，thepowertodismemberproprietarygovernmentswasnotclaimed。
And，insomeinstances，evenafterthepowersofgovernmentwererevestedinthecrown，thetitleoftheproprietorstothesoilwasrespected。
§；21。\"CharlestheSecondwasextremelyanxioustoacquirethepropertyofMaine，butthegranteessoldittoMassachusetts，andhedidnotventuretocontesttherightofthecolonytothesoil。
TheCarolinaswereoriginallyproprietarygovernments；In1721arevolutionwaseffectedbythepeople，whoshookofftheirobediencetotheproprietors，anddeclaredtheirdependenceimmediatelyonthecrown。Theking，however，purchasedthetitleofthose，whoweredisposedtosell。Oneofthem，LordCarteret，surrenderedhisinterestinthegovernment，butretainedhistitletothesoil。Thattitlewasrespectedtilltherevolution，whenitwasforfeitedbythelawsofwar。
§；22。\"Furtherproofsoftheextent，towhichthisprinciplehasbeenrecognized，willbefoundinthehistoryofthewars，negotiations，andtreaties，whichthedifferentnations，claimingterritoryinAmerica，havecarriedon，andheldwitheachother。ThecontestsbetweenthecabinetsofVersaillesandMadrid，respectingtheterritoryonthenortherncoastofthegulfofMexico，werefierceandbloody；andcontinued，untiltheestablishmentofaBourbononthethroneofSpain，producedsuchamicabledispositionsinthetwocrowns，astosuspendorterminatethem。BetweenFranceandGreatBritain，whosediscoveries，aswellassettlements，werenearlycontemporaneous，contestsforthecountry，actuallycoveredbytheIndians，beganassoonastheirsettlementsapproachedeachother，andwerecontinueduntilfinallysettledintheyear1763，bythetreatyofParis。