SectionVI
OfMoralSentimentUponaslightobservationofwhatpassesinhumanlife，weshouldbeapttoconclude，thatthecareofsubsistenceistheprincipalspringofhumanactions。Thisconsiderationleadstotheinventionandpracticeofmechanicalarts；itservestodistinguishamusementfrombusiness；and，withmany，scarcelyadmitsintocompetitionanyothersubjectofpursuitorattention。Themightyadvantagesofpropertyandfortune，whenstriptoftherecommendationstheyderivefromvanity，orthemoreseriousregardstoindependenceandpower，onlymeanaprovisionthatismadeforanimalenjoyment；andifoursolicitudeonthissubjectwereremoved，notonlythetoilsofthemechanic，butthestudiesofthelearned，wouldcease；everydepartmentofpublicbusinesswouldbecomeunnecessary；everysenate-housewouldbeshutup，andeverypalacedeserted。
Ismantherefore，inrespecttohisobject，tobeclassedwiththemerebrutes，andonlytobedistinguishedbyfacultiesthatqualifyhimtomultiplycontrivancesforthesupportandconvenienceofanimallife，andbytheextentofafancythatrendersthecareofanimalpreservationtohimmoreburdensomethanitistotheherdwithwhichhesharesinthebountyofnature？Ifthiswerehiscase，thejoywhichattendsonsuccess，orthegriefswhicharisefromdisappointment，wouldmakethesumofhispassions。Thetorrentthatwasted，ortheinundationthatenrichedhispossessions，wouldgivehimalltheemotionwithwhichheisseized，ontheoccasionofawrongbywhichhisfortunesareimpaired，orofabenefitbywhichtheyarepreservedandenlarged。Hisfellow-creatureswouldbeconsideredmerelyastheyaffectedhisinterest。Profitorlosswouldservetomarktheeventofeverytransaction；andtheepithetsusefulordetrimentalwouldservetodistinguishhismatesinsociety，astheydothetreewhichbearsplentyoffruit，fromthatwhichservesonlytocumbertheground，orintercepthisview。
This，however，isnotthehistoryofourspecies。Whatcomesfromafellow-creatureisreceivedwithpeculiarattention；andeverylanguageaboundswithtermsthatexpresssomewhatinthetransactionsofmen，differentfromsuccessanddisappointment。
Thebosomkindlesincompany，whilethepointofinterestinviewhasnothingtoinflame；andamatterfrivolousinitself，becomesimportant，whenitservestobringtolighttheintentionsandcharactersofmen。Theforeigner，whobelievedthatOthello，onthestage，wasenragedforthelossofhishandkerchief，wasnotmoremistaken，thanthereasonerwhoimputesanyofthemorevehementpassionsofmentotheimpressionsofmereprofitorloss。
Menassembletodeliberateonbusiness；theyseparatefromjealousiesofinterest；butintheirseveralcollisions，whetherasfriendsorasenemies，afireisstruckoutwhichtheregardstointerestorsafetycannotconfine。Thevalueofafavourisnotmeasuredwhensentimentsofkindnessareperceived；andthetermmisfortunehasbutafeeblemeaning，whencomparedtothatofinsultandwrong。
Asactorsorspectators，weareperpetuallymadetofeelthedifferenceofhumanconduct，andfromabarerecitaloftransactionswhichhavepassedinagesandcountriesremotefromourown，aremovedwithadmirationandpity，ortransportedwithindignationandrage。Oursensibilityonthissubjectgivestheircharm，inretirement，totherelationsofhistory，andtothefictionsofpoetry；sendsforththetearofcompassion，givestotheblooditsbriskestmovement，andtotheeyeitsliveliestglancesofdispleasureorjoy。Itturnshumanlifeintoaninterestingspectacle，andperpetuallysolicitseventheindolenttomix，asopponentsorfriends，inthesceneswhichareactedbeforethem。Joinedtothepowersofdeliberationandreason，itconstitutesthebasisofamoralnature；andwhilstitdictatesthetermsofpraiseandofblame，servestoclassourfellow-creaturesbythemostadmirableandengaging，orthemostodiousandcontemptible，denominations。
Itispleasanttofindmen，who，intheirspeculations，denytherealityofmoraldistinctions，forgetindetailthegeneralpositionstheymaintain，andgiveloosetoridicule，indignation，andscorn，asifanyofthesesentimentscouldhaveplace，weretheactionsofmenindifferent；andwithacrimonypretendtodetectthefraudbywhichmoralrestraintshavebeenimposed，asiftocensureafraudwerenotalreadytotakeapartonthesideofmorality。8*
Canweexplaintheprinciplesuponwhichmankindadjudgethepreferenceofcharacters，anduponwhichtheyindulgesuchvehementemotionsofadmirationorcontempt？Ifitbeadmittedthatwecannot，arethefactslesstrue？ormustwesuspendthemovementsoftheheartuntiltheywhoareemployedinframingsystemsofsciencehavediscoveredtheprinciplefromwhichthosemovementsproceed？Ifafingerburn，wecarenotforinformationonthepropertiesoffire:iftheheartbetorn，orthemindoverjoyed，wehavenotleisureforspeculationsonthesubjectofmoralsensibility。
Itisfortunateinthis，asinotherarticlestowhichspeculationandtheoryareapplied，thatnatureproceedsinhercourse，whilstthecuriousarebusiedinthesearchofherprinciples。Thepeasant，orthechild，canreason，andjudge，andspeakhislanguage，withadiscernment，aconsistency，andaregardtoanalogy，whichperplexthelogician，themoralist，andthegrammarian，whentheywouldfindtheprincipleuponwhichtheproceedingisfounded，orwhentheywouldbringtogeneralrules，whatissofamiliar，andsowellsustainedinparticularcases。
Thefelicityofourconductismoreowingtothetalentwepossessfordetail，andtothesuggestionofparticularoccasions，thanitistoanydirectionwecanfindintheoryandgeneralspeculations。
Wemust，intheresultofeveryinquiry，encounterwithfactswhichwecannotexplain；andtobearwiththismortificationwouldsaveusfrequentlyagreatdealoffruitlesstrouble。
Togetherwiththesenseofourexistence，wemustadmitmanycircumstanceswhichcometoourknowledgeatthesametime，andinthesamemanner；andwhichdo，inreality，constitutethemodeofourbeing。Everypeasantwilltellus，thatamanhathhisrights；andthattotrespassonthoserightsisinjustice。Ifweaskhimfarther，whathemeansbythetermright？weprobablyforcehimtosubstitutealesssignificant，orlessproperterm，intheplaceofthis；orrequirehimtoaccountforwhatisanoriginalmodeofhismind，andasentimenttowhichheultimatelyrefers，whenhewouldexplainhimselfuponanyparticularapplicationofhislanguage。
Therightsofindividualsmayrelatetoavarietyofsubjects，andbecomprehendedunderdifferentheads。Priortotheestablishmentofproperty，andthedistinctionofranks，menhavearighttodefendtheirpersons，andtoactwithfreedom；theyhavearighttomaintaintheapprehensionsofreason，andthefeelingsoftheheart；andtheycannotforamomentconversewithoneanother，withoutfeelingthattheparttheymaintainmaybejustorunjust。Itisnot，however，ourbusinessheretocarrythenotionofarightintoitsseveralapplications，buttoreasononthesentimentoffavourwithwhichthatnotionisentertainedinthemind。
Ifitbetrue，thatmenareunitedbyinstinct，thattheyactinsocietyfromaffectionsofkindnessandfriendship；ifitbetrue，thatevenpriortoacquaintanceandhabitude，men，assuch，arecommonlytooneanotherobjectsofattention，andsomedegreeofregard；thatwhiletheirprosperityisbeheldwithindifference，theirafflictionsareconsideredwithcommiseration；ifcalamitiesbemeasuredbythenumbersandthequalitiesofmentheyinvolve；andifeverysufferingofafellow-creaturedrawsacroudofattentivespectators；ifeveninthecaseofthosetowhomwedonothabituallywishanypositivegood，wearestillaversetobetheinstrumentsofharm；itshouldseem，thatinthesevariousappearancesofanamicabledisposition，thefoundationsofamoralapprehensionaresufficientlylaid，andthesenseofarightwhichwemaintainforourselves，isbyamovementofhumanityandcandourextendedtoourfellowcreatures。
Whatisitthatpromptsthetonguewhenwecensureanactofcrueltyoroppression？Whatisitthatconstitutesourrestraintfromoffencesthattendtodistressourfellow-creatures？Itisprobably，inbothcases，aparticularapplicationofthatprinciple，which，inpresenceofthesorrowful，sendsforththetearofcompassion；andacombinationofallthosesentiments，whichconstituteabenevolentdisposition；andifnotaresolutiontodogood，atleastanaversiontobetheinstrumentofharm。9*
Itmaybedifficult，however，toenumeratethemotivesofallthecensuresandcommendationswhichareappliedtotheactionsofmen。Evenwhilewemoralize，everydispositionofthehumanmindmayhaveitsshareinformingthejudgement，andinpromptingthetongue。Asjealousyisoftenthemostwatchfulguardianofchastity，somaliceisoftenthequickesttospythefailingsofourneighbour。Envy，affectation，andvanity，maydictatetheverdictswegive，andtheworstprinciplesofournaturemaybeatthebottomofourpretendedzealformorality；
butifweonlymeantoinquire，whytheywhoarewelldisposedtomankind，apprehend，ineveryinstance，certainrightspertainingtotheirfellow-creatures，andwhytheyapplaudtheconsiderationthatispaidtothoserights，wecannotperhapsassignabetterreason，thanthatthepersonwhoapplauds，iswelldisposedtothewelfareofthepartiestowhomhisapplausesrefer。
Whenweconsider，thattherealityofanyamicablepropensityinthehumanmindhasbeenfrequentlycontested；whenwerecollecttheprevalenceofinterestedcompetitions，withtheirattendantpassionsofjealousy，envy，andmalice；itmayseemstrangetoalledge，thatloveandcompassionarethemostpowerfulprinciplesinthehumanbreast:buttheyaredestined，onmanyoccasions，tourgewiththemostirresistiblevehemence；
andifthedesireofself-preservationbemoreconstant，andmoreuniform，theseareamoreplentifulsourceofenthusiasm，satisfaction，andjoy。Withapower，notinferiortothatofresentmentandrage，theyhurrythemindintoeverysacrificeofinterest，andbearitundismayedthrougheveryhardshipanddanger。
Thedispositiononwhichfriendshipisgrafted，glowswithsatisfactioninthehoursoftranquillity，andispleasant，notonlyinitstriumphs，buteveninitssorrows。Itthrowsagraceontheexternalair，and，byitsexpressiononthecountenance，compensatesforthewantofbeauty，orgivesacharmwhichnocomplexionorfeaturescanequal。Fromthissourcethescenesofhumanlifederivetheirprincipalfelicity；andtheirimitationsinpoetry，theirprincipalornament。Descriptionsofnature，evenrepresentationsofavigorousconduct，andamanlycourage，donotengagetheheart，iftheybenotmixedwiththeexhibitionofgeneroussentiments，andthepathetic，whichisfoundtoariseinthestruggles，thetriumphs，orthemisfortunesofatenderaffection。ThedeathofPolites，intheAeneid，isnotmoreaffectingthanthatofmanyotherswhoperishedintheruinsofTroy；buttheagedPriamwaspresentwhenthislastofhissonswasslain；andtheagoniesofgriefandsorrowforcetheparentfromhisretreat，tofallbythehandthatshedthebloodofhischild。ThepatheticofHomerconsistsinexhibitingtheforceofaffections，notinexcitingmereterrorandpity；passionshehasneverperhaps，inanyinstance，attemptedtoraise。
Withthistendencytokindleintoenthusiasm，withthiscommandovertheheart，withthepleasurethatattendsitsemotions，andwithallitseffectsinmeritingconfidence，andprocuringesteem，itisnotsurprising，thataprincipleofhumanityshouldgivethetonetoourcommendationsandourcensures，andevenwhereitishinderedfromdirectingourconduct，shouldstillgivetothemind，onreflection，itsknowledgeofwhatisdesirableinthehumancharacter。WhathastthoudonewiththybrotherAbel？wasthefirstexpostulationinbehalfofmorality；andifthefirstanswerhasbeenoftenrepeated，mankindhavenotwithstand-standing，inonesense，sufficientlyacknowledgedthechargeoftheirnature。Theyhavefelt，theyhavetalked，andevenacted，asthekeepersoftheirfellow-creatures:Theyhavemadetheindicationsofcandourandmutualaffectionthetestofwhatismeritoriousandamiableinthecharactersofmen:Theyhavemadecrueltyandoppressiontheprincipalobjectsoftheirindignationandrage:Evenwhiletheheadisoccupiedwithprojectsofinterest，theheartisoftenseducedintofriendship；andwhilebusinessproceedsonthemaximsofself-preservation，thecarelesshourisemployedingenerosityandkindness。
Hencetherulebywhichmencommonlyjudgeofexternalactions，istakenfromthesupposedinfluenceofsuchactionsonthegeneralgood。Toabstainfromharm，isthegreatlawofnaturaljustice；todiffusehappinessisthelawofmorality；andwhenwecensuretheconferringafavourononeorafewattheexpenceofmany，werefertopublicutility，asthegreatobjectatwhichtheactionsofmenshouldbeaimed。
Afterall，itmustbeconfessed，thatifaprincipleofaffectiontomankind，bethebasisofourmoralapprobationanddislike，wesometimesproceedindistributingapplauseorcensure，withoutpreciselyattendingtothedegreeinwhichourfellow-creaturesarehurtorobliged；andthat，besidesthevirtuesofcandour，friendship，generosity，andpublicspirit，whichbearanimmediatereferencetothisprinciple，thereareotherswhichmayseemtoderivetheircommendationfromadifferentsource。Temperance，prudence，fortitude，arethosequalitieslikewiseadmiredfromaprincipleofregardtoourfellow-creatures？Whynot，sincetheyrendermenhappyinthemselves，andusefultoothers？Hewhoisqualifiedtopromotethewelfareofmankind，isneitherasot，afool，noracoward。
Canitbemoreclearlyexpressed，thattemperance，prudence，andfortitude，arenecessarytothecharacterweloveandadmire？I
knowwellwhyIshouldwishforthem，inmyself。andwhylikewiseIshouldwishfortheminmyfriend，andineverypersonwhoisanobjectofmyaffection。Buttowhatpurposeseekforreasonsofapprobation，wherequalitiesaresonecessarytoourhappiness，andsogreatapartintheperfectionofournature？
Wemustceasetoesteemourselves，andtodistinguishwhatisexcellent，whensuchqualificationsincurourneglect。
Apersonofanaffectionatemind，possessedofamaxim，Thathehimself，asanindividual，isnomorethanapartofthewholethatdemandshisregard，hasfound，inthatprinciple，asufficientfoundationforallthevirtues；foracontemptofanimalpleasures，thatwouldsupplanthisprincipalenjoyment；
foranequalcontemptofdangerorpain，thatcometostophispursuitsofpublicgood。’Avehementandsteadyaffectionmagnifiesitsobject，andlessenseverydifficultyordangerthatstandsintheway。’’Askthosewhohavebeeninlove，’saysEpictetus，’theywillknowthatIspeaktruth。’
’Ihavebeforeme，’saysanothereminentmoralist，10*’anideaofjustice，which，ifIcouldfollowineveryinstance，I
shouldthinkmyselfthemosthappyofmen’。Anditis，perhaps，ofconsequencetotheirhappiness，aswellastotheirconduct，ifthosecanbedisjoined，thatmenshouldhavethisideaproperlyformed:Itisperhapsbutanothernameforthatgoodofmankind，whichthevirtuousareengagedtopromote。Ifvirtuebethesupremegood，itsbestandmostsignaleffectis，tocommunicateanddiffuseitself。
Tolove，andeventohate，ontheapprehensionofmoralqualities，toespouseonepartyfromasenseofjustice，toopposeanotherwithindignationexcitedbyiniquity，arethecommonindicationsofprobity，andtheoperationsofananimated，upright，andgenerousspirit。Toguardagainstunjustpartialities，andill-groundedantipathies；tomaintainthatcomposureofmind，which，withoutimpairingitssensibilityorardour，proceedsineveryinstancewithdiscernmentandpenetration，arethemarksofavigorousandcultivatedspirit。
Tobeabletofollowthedictatesofsuchaspiritthroughallthevarietiesofhumanlife，andwithamindalwaysmasterofitself，inprosperityoradversity，andpossessedofallitsabilities，whenthesubjectsinhazardarelife，orfreedom，asmuchasintreatingsimplequestionsofinterest，arethetriumphsofmagnanimity，andtrueelevationofmind。’Theeventofthedayisdecided。Drawthisjavelinfrommybodynow，’saidEpaminondas，’andletmebleed。’
Inwhatsituation，orbywhatinstruction，isthiswonderfulcharactertobeformed？Isitfoundinthenurseriesofaffectation，pertness，andvanity，fromwhichfashionispropagated，andthegenteelisannounced？ingreatandopulentcities，wheremenviewithoneanotherinequipage，dress，andthereputationoffortune？Isitwithintheadmiredprecinctsofacourt，wherewemaylearntosmilewithoutbeingpleased，tocaresswithoutaffection，towoundwiththesecretweaponsofenvyandjealousy，andtorestourpersonalimportanceoncircumstanceswhichwecannotalwayswithhonourcommand？No:butinasituationwherethegreatsentimentsoftheheartareawakened；wherethecharactersofmen，nottheirsituationsandfortunes，aretheprincipaldistinction；wheretheanxietiesofinterest，orvanity，perishintheblazeofmorevigorousemotions；andwherethehumansoul，havingfeltandrecogniseditsobjects，likeananimalwhohastastedthebloodofhisprey，cannotdescendtopursuitsthatleaveitstalentsanditsforceunemployed。
Properoccasionsaloneoperatingonaraisedandahappydisposition，mayproducethisadmirableeffect，whilstmereinstructionmayalwaysfindmankindatalosstocomprehenditsmeaning，orinsensibletoitsdictates。Thecase，however，isnotdesperate，tillwehaveformedoursystemofpolitics，aswellasmanners；tillwehavesoldourfreedomfortifies，equipage，anddistinctions；tillweseenomeritbutprosperityandpower，nodisgracebutpovertyandneglect。Whatcharmofinstructioncancurethemindthatistaintedwiththisdisorder？Whatsyrenvoicecanawakenadesireoffreedom，thatisheldtobemeanness，andawantofambition？orwhatpersuasioncanturnthegrimaceofpolitenessintorealsentimentsofhumanityandcandour？
SectionVII。
OfHappinessHavinghadunderourconsiderationtheactivepowersandthemoralqualitieswhichdistinguishthenatureofman，isitstillnecessarythatweshouldtreatofhishappinessapart？Thissignificantterm，themostfrequent，andthemostfamiliar，inourconversation，is，perhaps，onreflection，theleastunderstood。Itservestoexpressoursatisfaction，whenanydesireisgratified:Itispronouncedwithasigh，whenourobjectisdistant:Itmeanswhatwewishtoobtain，andwhatweseldomstaytoexamine。Weestimatethevalueofeverysubjectbyitsutility，anditsinfluenceonhappiness；butwethinkthatutilityitself，andhappiness，requirenoexplanation。
Thosemenarecommonlyesteemedthehappiest，whosedesiresaremostfrequentlygratified。Butif，inreality，thepossessionofwhatwedesire，andacontinuedfruition，wererequisitetohappiness，mankindforthemostpartwouldhavereasontocomplainoftheirlot。Whattheycalltheirenjoyments，aregenerallymomentary；andtheobjectofsanguineexpectation，whenobtained，nolongercontinuestooccupythemind:Anewpassionsucceeds，andtheimagination，asbefore，isintentonadistantfelicity。
Howmanyreflectionsofthissortaresuggestedbymelancholy，orbytheeffectsofthatverylanguorandinoccupationintowhichwewouldwillinglysink，underthenotionoffreedomfromcareandtrouble？
Whenweenteronaformalcomputationoftheenjoymentsorsufferingswhicharepreparedformankind，itisachancebutwefindthatpain，byitsintenseness，itsduration，orfrequency，isgreatlypredominant。Theactivityandeagernesswithwhichwepressfromonestageoflifetoanother，ourunwillingnesstoreturnonthepathswehavetrod，ouraversioninagetorenewthefrolicsofyouth，ortorepeatinmanhoodtheamusementsofchildren，havebeenaccordinglystatedasproofs，thatourmemoryofthepast，andourfeelingofthepresent，areequalsubjectsofdislikeanddispleasure。11*
Thisconclusion，however，likemanyothers，drawnfromoursupposedknowledgeofcauses，doesnotcorrespondwithexperience。Ineverystreet，ineveryvillage，ineveryfield，thegreaternumberofpersonswemeet，carryanaspectthatischearfulorthoughtless，indifferent，composed，busy，oranimated。Thelabourerwhistlestohisteam，andthemechanicisateaseinhiscalling；thefrolicsomeandthegayfeelaseriesofpleasures，ofwhichweknownotthesource；eventheywhodemonstratethemiseriesofhumanlife，whenintentontheirargument，escapefromtheirsorrows，andfindatolerablepastimeinprovingthatmenareunhappy。
Theverytermspleasureandpain，perhaps，areequivocal；butiftheyareconfined，astheyappeartobeinmanyofourreasonings，tothemeresensationswhichhaveareferencetoexternalobjects，eitherinthememoryofthepast，thefeelingofthepresent，ortheapprehensionofthefuture，itisagreaterrortosuppose，thattheycomprehendalltheconstituentsofhappinessormisery；orthatthegoodhumourofanordinarylifeismaintainedbytheprevalenceofthosepleasureswhichhavetheirseparatenames，andare，onreflection，distinctlyremembered。
Themind，duringthegreaterpartofitsexistence，isemployedinactiveexertions，notinmerelyattendingtoitsownfeelingsofpleasureorpain；andthelistofitsfaculties，understanding，memory，foresight，sentiment，will，andintention，onlycontainsthenamesofitsdifferentoperations。
Intheabsenceofeverysensationtowhichwecommonlygivethenameseitherofenjoymentorsuffering，ourveryexistencemayhaveitsoppositequalitiesofhappinessormisery；andifwhatwecallpleasureorpain，occupiesbutasmallpartofhumanlife，comparedtowhatpassesincontrivanceandexecution，inpursuitsandexpectations，inconduct，reflection，andsocialengagements；itmustappear，thatouractivepursuits，atleastonaccountoftheirduration，deservethegreaterpartofourattention。Whentheiroccasionshavefailed，thedemandisnotforpleasure，butforsomethingtodo；andtheverycomplaintsofasuffererarenotsosureamarkofdistress，asthestareofthelanguid。
Weseldom，however，reckonanytaskwhichweareboundtoperform，amongtheblessingsoflife。Wealwaysaimataperiodofpureenjoyment，oraterminationoftrouble；andoverlookthesourcefromwhichmostofourpresentsatisfactionsarereallydrawn。Askthebusy，Whereisthehappinesstowhichtheyaspire？
theywillanswer，perhaps，Thatitistobefoundintheobjectofsomepresentpursuit。Ifweask，Whytheyarenotmiserableintheabsenceofthathappiness？theywillsay，Thattheyhopetoattainit。Butisithopealonethatsupportsthemindinthemidstofprecariousanduncertainprospects？andwouldassuranceofsuccessfilltheintervalsofexpectationwithmorepleasingemotions？Givethehuntsmanhisprey，givethegamesterthegoldwhichisstakedOnthegame，thattheonemaynotneedtofatiguehisperson，northeothertoperplexhismind，andbothwillprobablylaughatourfolly。theonewillstakehismoneyanew，thathemaybeperplexed；theotherwillturnhisstagtothefield，thathemayhearthecryofthedogs，andfollowthroughdangerandhardship。Withdrawtheoccupationsofmen，terminatetheirdesires，existenceisaburden，andtheiterationofmemoryisatorment。
Themenofthiscountry，saysonelady，shouldlearntosowandtoknit；itwouldhindertheirtimefrombeingaburdentothemselves，andtootherpeople。Thatistrue，saysanother；formypart，thoughIneverlookabroad，Itrembleattheprospectofbadweather；forthenthegentlemencomemoppingtousforentertainment；andthesightofahusbandindistress，isbutamelancholyspectacle。
Indevising，orinexecutingaplan，inbeingcarriedonthetideofemotionandsentiment，themindseemstounfolditsbeing，andtoenjoyitself。Evenwheretheendandtheobjectareknowntobeoflittleavail，thetalentsandthefancyareoftenintenselyapplied，andbusinessorplaymayamusethemalike。Weonlydesirereposetorecruitourlimitedandourwastingforce:
whenbusinessfatigues，amusementisoftenbutachangeofoccupation。Wearenotalwaysunhappy，evenwhenwecomplain。
Thereisakindofafflictionwhichmakesanagreeablestateofthemind；andlamentationitselfissometimesanexpressionofpleasure。Thepainterandthepoethavelaidholdofthishandle，andfind，amongthemeansofentertainment，afavourablereceptionforworksthatarecomposedtoawakenoursorrows。
Toabeingofthisdescription，therefore，itisablessingtomeetwithincentivestoaction，whetherinthedesireofpleasure，ortheaversiontopain。Hisactivityisofmoreimportancethantheverypleasureheseeks，andlangouragreaterevilthanthesufferingheshuns。
Thegratificationsofanimalappetiteareofshortduration；
andsensualityisbutadistemperofthemind，whichoughttobecuredbyremembrance，ifitwerenotperpetuallyinflamedbyhope。Thechaceisnotmoresurelyterminatedbythedeathofthegame，thanthejoysofthevoluptuarybythemeansofcompletinghisdebauch。Asabondofsociety，asamatterofdistantpursuit，theobjectsofsensemakeanimportantpartinthesystemofhumanlife。Theyleadustofulfilthepurposeofnature，inpreservingtheindividual，andinperpetuatingthespecies:buttorelyontheiruseasaprincipalconstituentofhumanfelicity，wereanerrorinspeculation，andwouldbestillmoreanerrorinpractice。Eventhemasteroftheseraglio，forwhomallthetreasuresofempireareextortedfromthehoardsofitsfrightedinhabitants，forwhomalonethechoicestemeraldandthediamondaredrawnfromthemine，forwhomeverybreezeisenrichedwithperfumes，forwhombeautyisassembledfromeveryquarter，and，animatedbypassionsthatripenundertheverticalsun，isconfinedtothegrateforhisuse，isstill，perhaps，morewretchedthantheveryherdofthepeople，whoselaboursandpropertiesaredevotedtorelievehimoftrouble，andtoprocurehimenjoyment。
Sensualityiseasilyovercomebyanyofthehabitsofpursuitwhichusuallyengageanactivemind。Whencuriosityisawake，orwhenpassionisexcited，eveninthemidstofthefeastwhenconversationgrowswarm，growsjovial，orserious，thepleasuresofthetableweknowareforgotten。Theboycontemnsthemforplay，andthemanofagedeclinesthemforbusiness。
Whenwereckonthecircumstancesthatcorrespondtothenatureofanyanimal，ortothatofmaninparticular，suchassafety，shelter，food，andtheothermeansofenjoymentorpreservation，wesometimesthinkthatwehavefoundasensibleandasolidfoundationonwhichtoresthisfelicity。Butthosewhoareleastdisposedtomoralize，observe，thathappinessisnotconnectedwithfortune，althoughfortuneincludesatonceallthemeansofsubsistence，andthemeansofsensualindulgence。
Thecircumstancesthatrequireabstinence，courage，andconduct，exposeustohazard，andareindescriptionofthepainfulkind；
yettheable，thebrave，andtheardent，seemmosttoenjoythemselveswhenplacedinthemidstofdifficulties，andobligedtoemploythepowerstheypossess。
Spinolabeingtold，thatSirFrancisVerediedofhavingnothingtodo，said，’Thatwasenoughtokillageneral。’12*
Howmanyaretheretowhomwaritselfisapastime，whochusethelifeofasoldier，exposedtodangersandcontinuedfatigues；ofamariner，inconflictwitheveryhardship，andbereftofeveryconveniency；ofapolitician，whosesportistheconductofpartiesandfactions；andwho，ratherthanbeidle，willdothebusinessofmenandofnationsforwhomhehasnotthesmallestregard。Suchmendonotchusepainaspreferabletopleasure，buttheyareincitedbyarestlessdispositiontomakecontinuedexertionsofcapacityandresolution；theytriumphinthemidstoftheirstruggles；theydroop，andtheylanguish，whentheoccasionoftheirlabourhasceased。
Whatwasenjoyment，inthesenseofthatyouth，who，accordingtoTacitus，loveddangeritself，nottherewardsofcourage？Whatistheprospectofpleasure，whenthesoundofthehornorthetrumpet，thecryofthedogs，ortheshoutofwar，awakentheardourofthesportsmanandthesoldier？Themostanimatingoccasionsofhumanlife，arecallstodangerandhardship，notinvitationstosafetyandease:andmanhimself，inhisexcellence，isnotananimalofpleasure，nordestinedmerelytoenjoywhattheelementsbringtohisuse；but，likehisassociates，thedogandthehorse，tofollowtheexercisesofhisnature，inpreferencetowhatarecalleditsenjoyments；topineinthelapofeaseandofaffluence，andtoexultinthemidstofalarmsthatseemtothreatenhisbeing。Inallwhich，hisdispositiontoactiononlykeepspacewiththevarietyofpowerswithwhichheisfurnished；andthemostrespectableattributesofhisnature，magnanimity，fortitude，andwisdom，carryamanifestreferencetothedifficultieswithwhichheisdestinedtostruggle。
Ifanimalpleasurebecomesinsipidwhenthespiritisrousedbyadifferentobject，itiswellknownlikewise，thatthesenseofpainispreventedbyanyvehementaffectionofthesoul。
Woundsreceivedinaheatofpassion，inthehurry，theardour，orconsternationofbattle，areneverfelttillthefermentofthemindsubsides。Eventorments，deliberatelyapplied，andindustriouslyprolonged，arebornewithfirmness，andwithanappearanceofease，whenthemindispossessedwithsomevigoroussentiment，whetherofreligion，enthusiasm，orlovetomankind。
ThecontinuedmortificationsofsuperstitiousdevoteesinseveralagesoftheChristianchurch；thewildpenances，stillvoluntarilyborne，duringmanyyears，bythereligionistsoftheeast；thecontemptinwhichfamineandtortureareheldbymostsavagenations；thechearfulorobstinatepatienceofthesoldierinthefield；thehardshipsenduredbythesportsmaninhispastime，showhowmuchwemayerrincomputingthemiseriesofmen，fromthemeasuresoftroubleandofsufferingtheyseemtoincur。Andiftherebearefinementinaffirming，thattheirhappinessisnottobemeasuredbythecontraryenjoyments，itisarefinementwhichwasmadebyRegulusandCincinnatusbeforethedateofphilosophy；itisarefinement，whicheveryboyknowsathisplay，andeverysavageconfirms，whenhelooksfromhisforestonthepacificcity，andscornstheplantation，whosemasterhecaresnottoimitate。
Man，itmustbeconfessed，notwithstandingallthisactivityofhismind，isananimalinthefullextentofthatdesignation。
Whenthebodysickens，theminddroops；andwhenthebloodceasestoflow，thesoultakesitsdeparture。Chargedwiththecareofhispreservation，admonishedbyasenseofpleasureorpain，andguardedbyaninstinctivefearofdeath，naturehasnotintrustedhissafetytothemerevigilanceofhisunderstanding，nortothegovernmentofhisuncertainreflections。
Thedistinctionbetwixtmindandbodyisfollowedbyconsequencesofthegreatestimportance；butthefactstowhichwenowrefer，arenotfoundedonanytenetswhatever。Theyareequallytrue，whetherweadmitorrejectthedistinctioninquestion，orwhetherwesuppose，thatthislivingagentisformedofone，orisanassemblageofseparatenatures。Andthematerialist，bytreatingofmanasofanengine，cannotmakeanychangeinthestateofhishistory。Heisabeing，who，byamultiplicityofvisibleorgans，performsavarietyoffunctions。
Hisjointsarebent，andhismusclesrelaxandcontractinoursight；theheartbeatsinhisbreast，andthebloodflowstoeverypartofhisframe。Heperformsotheroperationswhichwecannotrefertoanycorporealorgan。Heperceives，herecollects，andforecasts；hedesires，andheshuns；headmires，andcontemns。Heenjoyshispleasures，orheendureshispain。Allthesedifferentfunctions，insomemeasure，gowellorilltogether。Whenthemotionofthebloodislanguid，themusclesrelax，theunderstandingistardy，andthefancyisdull:whendistemperassailshim，thephysicianmustattendnolesstowhathethinks，thantowhatheeats，andexaminethereturnsofhispassion，togetherwiththestrokesofhispulse。
Withallhissagacity，hisprecautions，andhisinstincts，whicharegiventopreservehisbeing，hepartakesinthefateofotheranimals，andseemstobeformedonlythathemaydie。
Myriadsperishbeforetheyreachtheperfectionoftheirkind；
andtheindividual，withanoptiontoowetheprolongationofhistemporarycoursetoresolutionandconduct，ortoabjectfear，frequentlychusesthelatter，andbyahabitoftimidity，imbittersthelifeheissointenttopreserve。
Man，however，attimes，exemptedfromthismortifyinglot，seemstoactwithoutanyregardtothelengthofhisperiod。Whenhethinksintensely，ordesireswithardour，pleasuresandpainsfromanyotherquarterassailhiminvain。Eveninhisdyinghour，themusclesacquireatonefromhisspirit，andthemindseemstodepartinitsvigour，andinthemidstofastruggletoobtaintherecentaimofitstoils。MuleyMoluck，borneonhislitter，andspentwithdisease，stillfoughtthebattle，inthemidstofwhichheexpired；andthelastefforthemade，withafingeronhislips，wasasignaltoconcealhisdeath:theprecaution，perhaps，ofallwhichhehadhithertotaken，themostnecessarytopreventadefeat。
Cannoreflectionsaidusinacquiringthishabitofthesoul，sousefulincarryingusthroughmanyoftheordinaryscenesoflife？Ifwesay，thattheycannot，therealityofitshappinessisnotthelessevident。TheGreeksandtheRomansconsideredcontemptofpleasure，enduranceofpain，andneglectoflife，aseminentqualitiesofaman，andaprincipalsubjectofdiscipline。Theytrusted，thatthevigorousspiritwouldfindworthyobjectsonwhichtoemployitsforce；andthatthefirststeptowardsaresolutechoiceofsuchobjectswastoshakeoffthemeannessofasolicitousandtimorousmind。
Mankind，ingeneral，havecourtedoccasionstodisplaytheircourage，andfrequently，insearchofadmiration，havepresentedaspectacle，whichtothosewhohaveceasedtoregardfortitudeonitsownaccount，becomesasubjectofhorror。Scevolaheldhisarminthefire，toshakethesoulofPorsenna。Thesavageinureshisbodytothetorture，thatinthehouroftrialhemayexultoverhisenemy。EventheMussulmantearshisfleshtowintheheartofhismistress，andcomesingaiety，streamingwithblood，toshewthathedeservesheresteem。13*
Somenationscarrythepracticeofinflicting，orofsportingwithpain，toadegreethatiseithercruelorabsurd；othersregardeveryprospectofbodilysufferingasthegreatestofevils；andinthemidstoftheirtroubles，imbittereveryrealaffliction，withtheterrorsofafeebleanddejectedimagination。Wearenotboundtoanswerforthefolliesofeither，nor，intreatingaquestionwhichrelatestothenatureofman，makeanestimateofitsstrength，oritsweakness，fromthehabitsorapprehensionspeculiartoanynationorage。
SectionVIII
ThesamesubjectcontinuedWhoeverhascomparedtogetherthedifferentconditionsandmannersofmen，undervarietiesofeducationorfortune，willbesatisfied，thatmeresituationdoesnotconstitutetheirhappinessormisery；noradiversityofexternalobservancesimplyanyoppositionofsentimentsonthesubjectofmorality。
Theyexpresstheirkindnessandtheirenmityindifferentactions；butkindnessorenmityisstilltheprincipalarticleofconsideration。inhumanlife。Theyengageindifferentpursuits，oracquiesceindifferentconditions；butactfrompassionsnearlythesame。Thereisnoprecisemeasureofaccommodationrequiredtosuittheirconveniency，noranydegreeofdangerorsafetyunderwhichtheyarepeculiarlyfittedtoact。Courageandgenerosity，fearandenvy，arenotpeculiartoanystationororderofmen；noristhereanyconditioninwhichsomeofthehumanracehavenotshewn，thatitispossibletoemploy，withpropriety，thetalentsandvirtuesoftheirspecies。
What，then，isthatmysteriousthingcalledHappiness，whichmayhaveplaceinsuchavarietyofstations，andtowhichcircumstancesinoneageornationthoughtnecessary，areinanotherheldtobedestructive，orofnoeffect？Itisnotthesuccessionofmereanimalpleasures，which，apartfromtheoccupationorthecompanyinwhichtheyservetoengagethemind，canfillupbutafewmomentsinthedurationoflife。Ontoofrequentarepetition，thosepleasuresturntosatietyanddisgust；theyteartheconstitutiontowhichtheyareappliedinexcess，and，likethelightningofnight，onlyservetodarkenthegloomthroughwhichtheyoccasionallybreak。Happinessisnotthatstateofrepose，orthatimaginaryfreedomfromcare，whichatadistanceissofrequentanobjectofdesire，butwithitsapproachbringsatedium，oralanguor，moreunsupportablethanpainitself。Iftheprecedingobservationsonthissubjectbejust，itarisesmorefromthepursuit，thanfromtheattainmentofanyendwhatever；andineverynewsituationtowhichwearrive，eveninthecourseofaprosperouslife，itdependsmoreonthedegreeinwhichourmindsareproperlyemployed，thanitdoesonthecircumstancesinwhichwearedestinedtoact，onthematerialswhichareplacedinourhands，orthetoolswithwhichwearefurnished。
Ifthisbeconfessedinrespecttothatclassofpursuitswhicharedistinguishedbythenameofamusement，andwhich，inthecaseofmenwhoarecommonlydeemedthemosthappy，occupythegreaterpartofhumanlife，wemayapprehend，thatitholds，muchmorethaniscommonlysuspected，inmanycasesofbusiness，wheretheendtobegained，andnottheoccupation，issupposedtohavetheprincipalvalue。
Themiserhimself，wearetold，cansometimesconsiderthecareofhiswealthasapastime，andhaschallengedhisheir，tohavemorepleasureinspending，thanheinamassinghisfortune。
Withthisdegreeofindifferencetowhatmaybetheconductofothers；withthisconfinementofhiscaretowhathehaschosenashisownprovince，moreespeciallyifhehasconqueredinhimselfthepassionsofjealousyandenvy，whichtearthecovetousmind；whymaynotthemanwhoseobjectismoney，beunderstoodtoleadalifeofamusementandpleasure，notonlymoreentirethanthatofthespendthrift，butevenasmuchasthevirtuoso，thescholar，themanoftaste，oranyofthatclassofpersonswhohavefoundoutamethodofpassingtheirleisurewithoutoffence，andtowhomtheacquisitionsmade，ortheworksproduced，intheirseveralways，perhaps，areasuselessasthebagtothemiser，orthecountertothosewhoplayfrommeredissipationatanygameofskillorofchance？
Wearesoontiredofdiversionsthatdonotapproachtothenatureofbusiness，thatis，thatdonotengagesomepassion，orgiveanexerciseproportionedtoourtalents，andourfaculties。
Thechaceandthegaming-tablehaveeachtheirdangersanddifficulties，toexciteandemploythemind。Allgamesofcontentionanimateouremulation，andgiveaspeciesofparty-zeal。Themathematicianisonlytobeamusedwithintricateproblems，thelawyerandthecasuistwithcasesthattrytheirsubtilty，andoccupytheirjudgement。
Thedesireofactiveengagements，likeeveryothernaturalappetite，maybecarriedtoexcess；andmenmaydebauchinamusements，aswellasintheuseofwine，orotherintoxicatingliquors。Atfirst，atriflingstake，andtheoccupationofamoderatepassion，mayhaveservedtoamusethegamester；butwhenthedrugbecomesfamiliar，itfailstoproduceitseffect:Theplayismadedeep，andtheinterestincreased，toawakenhisattention；heiscarriedonbydegrees，andintheendcomestoseekforamusement，andtofinditonlyinthosepassionsofanxiety，hope，anddespair，whicharerousedbythehazardintowhichhehasthrownthewholeofhisfortunes。
Ifmencanthusturntheiramusementsintoascenemoreseriousandinterestingthanthatofbusinessitself，itwillbedifficulttoassignareason，whybusiness，andmanyoftheoccupationsofhumanlife，independentofanydistantconsequences，orfutureevents，maynotbechosenasanamusement，andadoptedonaccountofthepastimetheybring。Thisis，perhaps，thefoundationonwhich，withouttheaidofreflection，thecontentedandthechearfulhaverestedthegaietyoftheirtempers。ItisperhapsthemostsolidbasisoffortitudewhichanyreJectioncanlay；andhappinessitselfissecured，bymakingacertainspeciesofconductouramusement；and，byconsideringlife，inthegeneralestimateofitsvalue，aswellasoneveryparticularoccasion，asamerescenefortheexerciseofthemind，andtheengagementsoftheheart。’Iwilltryandattempteverything，’saysBrutus，’Iwillneverceasetorecalmycountryfromthisstateofservility。Iftheeventbefavourable，itwillprovematterofjoytousall；ifnot，yetI，notwithstanding，shallrejoice。’Whyrejoiceinadisappointment？
Whynotbedejected，whenhiscountrywasoverwhelmed？Becausesorrow，perhaps，anddejection，candonogood。Nay，buttheymustbeenduredwhentheycome。Andwhenceshouldtheycometome？mighttheRomansay；Ihavefollowedmymind，andcanfollowitstill。EventsmayhavechangedthesituationinwhichIamdestinedtoact；butcantheyhindermyactingthepartofaman？
Shewmeasituationinwhichamancanneitheractnordie，andI
willownheiswretched。
Whoeverhastheforceofmindsteadilytoviewhumanlifeunderthisaspect，hasonlytochusewellhisoccupations，inordertocommandthatstateofenjoyment，andfreedomofsoul，whichprobablyconstitutethepeculiarfelicitytowhichhisactivenatureisdestined。
Thedispositionsofmen，andconsequentlytheiroccupations，arecommonlydividedintotwoprincipalclasses；theselfish，andthesocial。Thefirstareindulgedinsolitude；andiftheycarryareferencetomankind，itisthatofemulation，competition，andenmity。Thesecondinclineustolivewithourfellow-creatures，andtodothemgood；theytendtounitethemembersofsocietytogether；theyterminateinamutualparticipationoftheircaresandenjoyments，andrenderthepresenceofmenanoccasionofjoy。Underthisclassmaybeenumeratedthepassionsofthesexes，theaffectionsofparentsandchildren，generalhumanity，orsingularattachments；aboveall，thathabitofthesoulbywhichweconsiderourselvesasbutapartofsomebelovedcommunity，andasbutindividualmembersofsomesociety，whosegeneralwelfareistousthesupremeobjectofzeal，andthegreatruleofourconduct。Thisaffectionisaprincipleofcandour，whichknowsnopartialdistinctions，andisconfinedtonobounds:itmayextenditseffectsbeyondourpersonalacquaintance；itmay，inthemind，andinthought，atleast，makeusfeelarelationtotheuniverse，andtothewholecreationofGod。’Shallanyone，’saysAntoninus，’lovethecityofCecrops，andyounotlovethecityofGod？’
Noemotionoftheheartisindifferent。Itiseitheranactofvivacityandjoy，orafeelingofsadness；atransportofpleasure，oraconvulsionofanguish:andtheexercisesofourdifferentdispositions，aswellastheirgratifications，arelikelytoprovematterofthegreatestimportancetoourhappinessormisery。
Theindividualischargedwiththecareofhisanimalpreservation。Hemayexistinsolitude，and，farremovedfromsociety，performmanyfunctionsofsense，imagination，andreason。Heisevenrewardedfortheproperdischargeofthosefunctions；andallthenaturalexerciseswhichrelatetohimself，aswellastohisfellow-creatures，notonlyoccupywithoutdistressinghim，butinmanyinstancesareattendedwithpositivepleasures，andfillupthehoursoflifewithagreeableoccupation。
Thereisadegree，however，inwhichwesupposethatthecareofourselvesbecomesasourceofpainfulanxietyandcruelpassions；inwhichitdegeneratesintoavarice，vanity，orpride；
andinwhich，byfosteringhabitsofjealousyandenvy，offearandmalice，itbecomesasdestructiveofourownenjoyments，asitishostiletothewelfareofmankind。Thisevil，however，isnottobechargeduponanyexcessinthecareofourselves，butuponameremistakeinthechoiceofourobjects。Welookabroadforahappinesswhichistobefoundonlyinthequalitiesoftheheart:wethinkourselvesdependentonaccidents；andarethereforekeptinsuspenseandsolicitude:wethinkourselvesdependentonthewillofothermen；andarethereforeservileandtimid:wethinkourfelicityisplacedinsubjectsforwhichourfellow-creaturesarerivalsandcompetitors；andinpursuitofhappiness，weengageinthosescenesofemulation，envy，hatred，animosity，andrevenge，thatleadtothehighestpitchofdistress。Weact，inshort，asiftopreserveourselvesweretoretainourweakness，andperpetuateoursufferings。Wechargetheillsofadistemperedimagination，andacorruptheart，totheaccountofourfellow-creatures，towhomwereferthepangsofourdisappointmentormalice；andwhilewefosterourmisery，aresurprisedthatthecareofourselvesisattendedwithnobettereffects。Buthewhoremembersthatheisbynaturearationalbeing，andamemberofsociety；thattopreservehimself，istopreservehisreason，andtopreservethebestfeelingsofhisheart；willencounterwithnoneoftheseinconveniencies；andinthecareofhimself，willfindsubjectsonlyofsatisfactionandtriumph。
Thedivisionofourappetitesintobenevolentandselfish，hasprobably，insomedegree，helpedtomisleadourapprehensiononthesubjectofpersonalenjoymentandprivategood；andourzealtoprovethatvirtueisdisinterested，hasnotgreatlypromoteditscause。Thegratificationofaselfishdesire，itisthought，bringsadvantageorpleasuretoourselves；thatofbenevolenceterminatesinthepleasureoradvantageofothers:
whereas，inreality，thegratificationofeverydesireisapersonalenjoyment，anditsvaluebeingproportionedtotheparticularqualityorforceofthesentiment，itmayhappenthatthesamepersonmayreapagreateradvantagefromthegoodfortunehehasprocuredtoanother，thanfromthathehasobtainedforhimself。
Whilethegratificationsofbenevolence，therefore，areasmuchourownasthoseofanyotherdesirewhatever，themereexercisesofthisdispositionare，onmanyaccounts，tobeconsideredasthefirstandtheprincipalconstituentofhumanhappiness。Everyactofkindness，orofcare，intheparenttohischild；everyemotionoftheheart。infriendshiporinlove，inpubliczeal，orgeneralhumanity，aresomanyactsofenjoymentandsatisfaction。Pityitself，andcompassion，evengriefandmelancholy，whengraftedonsometenderaffection，partakeofthenatureofthestock；andiftheyarenotpositivepleasures，areatleastpainsofapeculiarnature，whichwedonotevenwishtoexchangebutforaveryrealenjoyment，obtainedinrelievingourobject。Evenextremes，inthisclassofourdispositions，astheyarethereverseofhatred，envy，andmalice，sotheyareneverattendedwiththoseexcruciatinganxieties，jealousies，andfears，whichteartheinterestedmind；
orif，inreality，anyillpassionarisefromapretendedattachmenttoourfellow-creatures，thatattachmentmaybesafelycondemned，asnotgenuine。Ifwebedistrustfulorjealous，ourpretendedaffectionisprobablynomorethanadesireofattentionandpersonalconsideration，amotivewhichfrequentlyinclinesustobeconnectedwithourfellow-creatures；buttowhichweareasfrequentlywillingtosacrificetheirhappiness。
Weconsiderthemasthetoolsofourvanity，pleasure，orinterest；notasthepartiesonwhomwemaybestowtheeffectsofourgood-will，andourlove。
Aminddevotedtothisclassofitsaffections，beingoccupiedwithanobjectthatmayengageithabitually，isnotreducedtocourttheamusementsorpleasureswithwhichpersonsofanilltemperareobligedtorepairtheirdisgusts:andtemperancebecomesaneasytaskwhengratificationsofsensearesupplantedbythoseoftheheart。Couragetooismosteasilyassumed，orisratherinseparablefromthatardourofthemind，insociety，friendship，orinpublicaction，whichmakesusforgetsubjectsofpersonalanxietyorfear，andattendchieflytotheobjectofourzealoraffection，nottothetriflinginconveniencies，dangers，orhardships，whichweourselvesmayencounterinstrivingtomaintainit。
Itshouldseem，therefore，tobethehappinessofman，tomakehissocialdispositionstherulingspringofhisoccupations；tostatehimselfasthememberofacommunity，forwhosegeneralgoodhisheartmayglowwithanardentzeal，tothesuppressionofthosepersonalcareswhicharethefoundationofpainfulanxieties，fear，jealousy，andenvy；or，asMrPopeexpressesthesamesentiment；
’Man，likethegenerousvine，supportedlives；
Thestrengthhegains，isfromth’embracehegives。’14*
Ifthisbethegoodoftheindividual，itislikewisethatofmankind；andvirtuenolongerimposesataskbywhichweareobligedtobestowuponothersthatgoodfromwhichweourselvesrefrain；butsupposes，inthehighestdegree，aspossessedbyourselves，thatstateoffelicitywhichwearerequiredtopromoteintheworld。
Wecommonlyapprehend，thatitisourdutytodokindnesses，andourhappinesstoreceivethem:butif，inreality，courage，andaheartdevotedtothegoodofmankind，aretheconstituentsofhumanfelicity，thekindnesswhichisdoneinfersahappinessinthepersonfromwhomitproceeds，notinhimonwhomitisbestowed；andthegreatestgoodwhichmenpossessedoffortitudeandgenerositycanprocuretotheirfellow-creatures，isaparticipationofthishappycharacter。’Youwillconferthegreatestbenefitonyourcity，’saysEpictetus，’notbyraisingtheroofs，butbyexaltingthesoulsofyourfellow-citizens；foritisbetterthatgreatsoulsshouldliveinsmallhabitations，thanthatabjectslavesshouldburrowingreathouses。’15*
Tothebenevolent，thesatisfactionofothersisagroundofenjoyment；andexistenceitself，inaworldthatisgovernedbythewisdomofGod，isablessing。Themind，freedfromcaresthatleadtopusillanimityandmeanness，becomescalm，active，fearless，andbold；capableofeveryenterprise，andvigorousintheexerciseofeverytalent，bywhichthenatureofmanisadorned。Onthisfoundationwasraisedtheadmirablecharacter，which，duringacertainperiodoftheirstory，distinguishedthecelebratednationsofantiquity，andrenderedfamiliarandordinaryintheirmanners，examplesofmagnanimity，which，undergovernmentslessfavourabletothepublicaffections，rarelyoccur；orwhich，withoutbeingmuchpractised，orevenunderstood，aremadesubjectsofadmirationandswellingpanegyric。’Thus，’saysXenophon，’diedThrasybulus；whoindeedappearstohavebeenagoodman。’Whatvaluablepraise，andhowsignificanttothosewhoknowthestoryofthisadmirableperson！
Themembersofthoseillustriousstates，fromthehabitofconsideringthemselvesaspartofacommunity，oratleastasdeeplyinvolvedwithsomeorderofmeninthestate，wereregardlessofpersonalconsiderations。theyhadaperpetualviewtoobjectswhichexciteagreatardourinthesoul；whichledthemtoactperpetuallyintheviewoftheirfellow-citizens，andtopractisethoseartsofdeliberation，elocution，policy，andwar，onwhichthefortunesofnations，orofmen，intheircollectivebody，depend。Totheforceofmindcollectedinthiscareer，andtotheimprovementsofwitwhichweremadeinpursuingit，thesenationsowed，notonlytheirmagnanimity，andthesuperiorityoftheirpoliticalandmilitaryconduct，buteventheartsofpoetryandliterature，whichamongthemwereonlytheinferiorappendagesofageniusotherwiseexcited，cultivated，andrefined。
TotheancientGreek，ortheRoman，theindividualwasnothing，andthepubliceverything。Tothemodern，intoomanynationsofEurope，theindividualiseverything，andthepublicnothing。Thestateismerelyacombinationofdepartments，inwhichconsideration，wealth，eminence，orpower，areofferedastherewardofservice。Itwasthenatureofmoderngovernment，eveninitsfirstinstitution，tobestowoneveryindividualafixedstationanddignity，whichhewastomaintainforhimself。
Ourancestors，inrudeages，duringtherecessofwarsfromabroad，foughtfortheirpersonalclaimsathome，andbytheircompetitions，andthebalanceoftheirpowers，maintainedakindofpoliticalfreedominthestate，whileprivatepartiesweresubjecttocontinualwrongsandoppressions。Theirposterity，intimesmorepolished，haverepressedthecivildisordersinwhichtheactivityofearlierageschieflyconsisted；buttheyemploythecalmtheyhavegained，notinfosteringazealforthoselaws，andthatconstitutionofgovernment，towhichtheyowetheirprotection，butinpractisingapart，andeachforhimself，theseveralartsofpersonaladvancement，orprofit，whichtheirpoliticalestablishmentsmayenablethemtopursuewithsuccess。
Commerce，whichmaybesupposedtocomprehendeverylucrativeart，isaccordinglyconsideredasthegreatobjectofnations，andtheprincipalstudyofmankind。
Somuchareweaccustomedtoconsiderpersonalfortuneasthesoleobjectofcare，thatevenunderpopularestablishments，andinstateswheredifferentordersofmenaresummonedtopartakeinthegovernmentoftheircountry，andwherethelibertiestheyenjoycannotbelongpreserved，withoutvigilanCeandactivityonthepartofthesubject；stillthey，who，inthevulgarphrase，havenottheirfortunestomake，aresupposedtobeatalossforoccupation，andbetakethemselvestosolitarypastimes，orcultivatewhattheyarepleasedtocallatasteforgardening，building，drawing，ormusic。Withthisaid，theyendeavourtofilluptheblanksofalistlesslife，andavoidthenecessityofcuringtheirlanguorsbyanypositiveservicetotheircountry，ortomankind。
Theweakorthemaliciousarewellemployedinanythingthatisinnocent，andarefortunateinfindinganyoccupationwhichpreventstheeffectsofatemperthatwouldpreyuponthemselves，orupontheirfellow-creatures。Buttheywhoareblessedwithahappydisposition，withcapacityandvigour，incurarealdebauchery，byhavinganyamusementthatoccupiesanimpropershareoftheirtime；andarereallycheatedoftheirhappiness，inbringmadetobelieve，thatanyoccupationorpastimeisbetterfittedtoamusethemselves，thanthatwhichatthesametimeproducessomerealgoodtotheirfellow-creatures。
Thissortofentertainment，indeed，cannotbethechoiceofthemercenary，theenvious，orthemalignant。Itsvalueisknownonlytopersonsofanoppositetemper；andtotheirexperiencealoneweappeal。Guidedbymeredisposition，andwithouttheaidofreflection，inbusiness，infriendship，andinpubliclife，theyoftenacquitthemselveswell；andbornewithsatisfactiononthetideoftheiremotionsandsentiments，enjoythepresenthour，withoutrecollectionofthepast，orhopesofthefuture。
Itisinspeculation，notinpractice，theyaremadetodiscover，thatvirtueisataskofseverityandself-denial。
SectionIX
OfNationalFelicityManis，bynature，thememberofacommunity；andwhenconsideredinthiscapacity，theindividualappearstobenolongermadeforhimself。Hemustforegohishappinessandhisfreedom，wheretheseinterferewiththegoodofsociety。Heisonlypartofawhole；andthepraisewethinkduetohisvirtue，isbutabranchofthatmoregeneralcommendationwebestowonthememberofabody，onthepartofafabricorengine，forbeingwellfittedtooccupyitsplace，andtoproduceitseffect。
Ifthisfollowfromtherelationofaparttoitswhole，andifthepublicgoodbetheprincipalobjectwithindividuals，itislikewisetrue，thatthehappinessofindividualsisthegreatendofcivilsociety:forinwhatsensecanapublicenjoyanygood，ifitsmembers，consideredapart，beunhappy？
Theinterestsofsociety，however，andofitsmembers，areeasilyreconciled。Iftheindividualoweeverydegreeofconsiderationtothepublic，hereceives，inpayingthatveryconsideration，thegreatesthappinessofwhichhisnatureiscapable；andthegreatestblessingthatthepubliccanbestowonitsmembers，istokeepthemattachedtoitself。Thatisthemosthappystate，whichismostbelovedbyitssubjects；andtheyarethemosthappymen，whoseheartsareengagedtoacommunity，inwhichtheyfindeveryobjectofgenerosityandzeal，andascopetotheexerciseofeverytalent，andofeveryvirtuousdisposition。
Afterwehavethusfoundgeneralmaxims，thegreaterpartofourtroubleremains，theirjustapplicationtoparticularcases。
Nationsaredifferentinrespecttotheirextent，numbersofpeople，andwealth；inrespecttotheartstheypractise，andtheaccommodationstheyhaveprocured。Thesecircumstancesmaynotonlyaffectthemannersofmen；theyeven，inouresteem，comeintocompetitionwiththearticleofmannersitself；aresupposedtoconstituteanationalfelicity，independentofvirtue；andgiveatitle，uponwhichweindulgeourownvanity，andthatofothernations，aswedothatofprivatemen，onthescoreoftheirfortunesandhonours。
Butifthiswayofmeasuringhappiness，whenappliedtoprivatemen，beruinousandfalse，itissonolesswhenappliedtonations。Wealth，commerce，extentofterritory，andtheknowledgeofarts，are，whenproperlyemployed，themeansofpreservation，andthefoundationsofpower。Iftheyfailinpart，thenationisweakened；iftheywereentirelywith-held，theracewouldperish:theirtendencyistomaintainnumbersofmen，butnottoconstitutehappiness。Theywillaccordinglymaintainthewretched，aswellasthehappy。Theyansweronepurpose，butarenotthereforesufficientforall；andareoflittlesignificance，whenonlyemployedtomaintainatimid，dejected，andservilepeople。
Greatandpowerfulstatesareabletoovercomeandsubduetheweak；polishedandcommercialnationshavemorewealth，andpractiseagreatervarietyofarts，thantherude:butthehappinessofmen，inallcasesalike，consistsintheblessingsofacandid，anactive，andstrenuousmind。Andifweconsiderthestateofsocietymerelyasthatintowhichmankindareledbytheirpropensities，asastatetobevaluedfromitseffectinpreservingthespecies，inripeningtheirtalents，andexcitingtheirvirtues，weneednotenlargeourcommunities，inordertoenjoytheseadvantages。Wefrequentlyobtaintheminthemostremarkabledegree，wherenationsremainindependent，andareofasmallextent。
Toincreasethenumbersofmankind，maybeadmittedasagreatandimportantobject:buttoextendthelimitsofanyparticularstate，isnot，perhaps，thewaytoobtainit；whilewedesirethatourfellow-creaturesshouldmultiply，itdoesnotfollow，thatthewholeshould，ifpossible，beunitedunderonehead。WeareapttoadmiretheempireoftheRomans，asamodelofnationalgreatnessandsplendour:butthegreatnessweadmireinthiscase，wasruinoustothevirtueandthehappinessofmankind；itwasfoundtobeinconsistentwithalltheadvantageswhichthatconqueringpeoplehadformerlyenjoyedinthearticlesofgovernmentandmanners。
Theemulationofnationsproceedsfromtheirdivision。A
clusterofstates，likeacompanyofmen，findtheexerciseoftheirreason，andthetestoftheirvirtues，intheaffairstheytransact，uponafootofequality，andofseparateinterest。Themeasurestakenforsafety，includinggreatpartofthenationalpolicy，arerelativeineverystatetowhatisapprehendedfromabroad。AthenswasnecessarytoSparta，intheexerciseofhervirtue，assteelistoflintintheproductionoffire；andifthecitiesofGreecehadbeenunitedunderonehead，weshouldneverhaveheardofEpaminondasorThrasybulus，ofLycurgusorSolon。
Whenwereasoninbehalfofourspecies，therefore，althoughwemaylamenttheabuseswhichsometimesarisefromindependence，andoppositionofinterest；yet，whilstanydegreesofvirtueremainwithmankind，wecannotwishtocroud，underoneestablishment，numbersofmenwhomayservetoconstituteseveral；ortocommitaffairstotheconductofonesenate，onelegislativeorexecutivepower，which，uponadistinctandseparatefooting，mightfurnishanexerciseofability，andatheatreofglory，tomany。
Thismaybeasubjectuponwhichnodeterminaterulecanbegiven，buttheadmirationofboundlessdominionisaruinouserror；andinnoinstance，perhaps，istherealinterestofmankindmoreentirelymistaken。
Themeasureofenlargementtobewishedforanyparticularstate，isoftentobetakenfromtheconditionofitsneighbours。
Whereanumberofstatesarecontiguous，theyshouldbenearanequality，inorderthattheymaybemutuallyobjectsofrespectandconsideration，andinorderthattheymaypossessthatindependenceinwhichthepoliticallifeofanationconsists。
WhenthekingdomsofSpainwereunited，whenthegreatfiefsinFrancewereannexedtothecrown，itwasnolongerexpedientforthenationsofGreatBritaintocontinuedisjoined。
ThesmallrepublicsofGreece，indeed，bytheirsubdivisions，andthebalanceoftheirpower，foundalmostineveryvillagetheobjectofnations。Everylittledistrictwasanurseryofexcellentmen，andwhatisnowthewretchedcornerofagreatempire，wasthefieldonwhichmankindhavereapedtheirprincipalhonours。ButinmodernEurope，republicsofasimilarextent，arelikeshrubs，undertheshadeofatallerwood，chokedbytheneighbourhoodofmorepowerfulstates。Intheircase，acertaindisproportionofforcefrustrates，inagreatmeasure，theadvantageofseparation。TheyarelikethetraderinPoland，whoisthemoredespicable，andthelesssecure，thatheisneithermasternorslave。
Independentcommunities，inthemeantime，howeverweak，areaversetoacoalition，notonlywhereitcomeswithanairofimposition，orunequaltreaty，butevenwhereitimpliesnomorethantheadmissionofnewmemberstoanequalshareofconsiderationwiththeold。Thecitizenhasnointerestintheannexationofkingdoms；hemustfindhisimportancediminished，asthestateisenlarged:butambitiousmen，undertheenlargementofterritory，findamoreplentifulharvestofpower，andofwealth，whilegovernmentitselfisaneasiertask。Hencetheruinousprogressofempire；andhencefreenations，undertheshewofacquiringdominion，sufferthemselves，intheend，tobeyokedwiththeslavestheyhadconquered。
Ourdesiretoaugmenttheforceofanationistheonlypretextforenlargingitsterritory；butthismeasure，whenpursuedtoextremes，seldomfailstofrustrateitself。
Notwithstandingtheadvantageofnumbers，andsuperiorresourcesinwar，thestrengthofanationisderivedfromthecharacter，notfromthewealth，norfromthemultitudeofitspeople。Ifthetreasureofastatecanhirenumbersofmen，erectramparts，andfurnishtheimplementsofwar；thepossessionsofthefearfulareeasilyseized；atimorousmultitudefallsintoroutofitself；rampartsmaybescaledwheretheyarenotdefendedbyvalour；andarmsareofconsequenceonlyinthehandsofthebrave。ThebandtowhichAgesilauspointedasthewallofhiscity，madeadefencefortheircountrymorepermanent，andmoreeffectual，thantherockandthecementwithwhichothercitieswerefortified。
Weshouldowelittletothatstatesmanwhoweretocontriveadefencethatmightsupersedetheexternalusesofvirtue。Itiswiselyorderedforman，asarationalbeing，thattheemploymentofreasonisnecessarytohispreservation:itisfortunateforhim，inthepursuitofdistinction，thathispersonalconsiderationdependsonhischaracter；anditisfortunatefornations，that，inordertobepowerfulandsafe，theymuststrivetomaintainthecourage，andcultivatethevirtues，oftheirpeople。Bytheuseofsuchmeans，theyatoncegaintheirexternalends，andarehappy。
Peaceandunanimityarecommonlyconsideredastheprincipalfoundationsofpublicfelicity；yettherivalshipofseparatecommunities，andtheagitationsofafreepeople，aretheprinciplesofpoliticallife，andtheschoolofmen。Howshallwereconcilethesejarringandoppositetenets？Itis，perhaps，notnecessarytoreconcilethem，’Thepacificmaydowhattheycantoallaytheanimosities，andtoreconciletheopinions，ofmen；anditwillbehappyiftheycansucceedinrepressingtheircrimes，andincalmingtheworstoftheirpassions。Nothing，inthemeantime，butcorruptionorslaverycansuppressthedebatesthatsubsistamongmenofintegrity，whobearanequalpartintheadministrationofstate。
Aperfectagreementinmattersofopinionisnottobeobtained，andifitwere，whatwouldbecomeinthemostselectcompany’ofsociety？’TheSpartanlegislator，’saysPlutarch，’appearstohavesowntheseedsofvarianceanddissensionamonghiscountrymen:hemeantthatgoodcitizensshouldbeledtodispute；heconsideredemulationasthebrandbywhichtheirvirtueswerekindled；andseemedtoapprehend，thatacomplaisance，bywhichmensubmittheiropinionswithoutexamination，isaprincipalsourceofcorruption。’
Formsofgovernmentaresupposedtodecideofthehappinessormiseryofmankind。Butformsofgovernmentmustbevaried，inordertosuittheextent，thewayofsubsistence，thecharacter，andthemannersofdifferentnations。Insomecases，themultitudemaybesufferedtogovernthemselves；inothers，theymustbeseverelyrestrained。Theinhabitantsofavillageinsomeprimitiveage，mayhavebeensafelyintrustedtotheconductofreason，andtothesuggestionoftheirinnocentviews；butthetenantsofNewgatecanscarcelybetrusted，withchainslockedtotheirbodies，andbarsofironfixedtotheirlegs。Howisitpossible，therefore，tofindanysingleformofgovernmentthatwouldsuitmankindineverycondition？
Weproceed，however，inthefollowingsection，topointoutthedistinctions，andtoexplainthelanguagewhichoccursinthisplace，ontheheadofdifferentmodelsforsubordinationandgovernment。