THEinstrumentsofantiquityemployedintheartofwritingbelongtotwoofthemostdistantepochs。
Inthefirstperiod，inscriptionswereengraved，carvedorimpressedwithsharpinstruments，andofpatternscharacteristicofagravingtool，chiselorotherformwhichcouldbeadaptedtoparticularsubstanceslikestone，leaves，metalorivoryplates，waxorclaytablets，cylindersandprisms。
TheancientAssyriansevenusedknivesorstampsforimpressingtheircuneiformwritinguponcylindersorprismsofsoftclaywhichwereoftenglazedbysubsequentbakingsinkilns。
Theotherperiodwasthatinwhichwrittencharactersweremadewithliquidsorpaintsofanykindorcolor。Theliquidsinkswereusedinconnectionwithapenmanufacturedfromareedcalamus，whilethepaintswere“painted“onthevarioussubstanceswithabrush。Thewritingexecutedwithbothoftheseinstrumentswasonmaterialslikethebarkoftrees，cloth，skins，papyrus，vellum，etc。
Theancientaswellasmodernpens，thoughofmanysortsandkinds，aretobeclassifiedundertwogeneralheads，thosewhichscratchandthosewhichuseanink。
Thereisnoauthoritytodisputethegenerallyconcededfactthatthe“scratching“instrumentwasthefirstoneused。Itsmostpopularformseemstohavebeenthestylusorbodkin，whichwasmadeofavarietyofmaterials，suchasiron，ivory，bone，mineralsoranyotherhardsubstance，whichcouldbesufficientlysharpenedatoneendtoindentthevariousmaterialsemployedinconnectionwithitsuse。Theotherendwasflattenedforerasingmarksmadeonwaxandsmoothingit。FromittheItalianstillettotookitsorigin。
Thestylusisbestdescribedinthefollowinglines：
“Myheadisflatandsmooth，butsharpmyfoot，Andbyman’shandtodifferentusesput；
Forwhatmyfootperformswithartandcare，Myheadmakesvoid，suchoppositestheyare。”
Relativetotheemploymentofmarkinginstrumentswhichbelongtothemostvenerableantiquity，NoelHumphreysobserves：
“Beforethegrowthofwealthandluxuryhadtaughtnationstoraisemagnificenttemplesandstatelypalaces，whosewallsthehieroglyphicsculptorcoveredwithrecordsofthepompandprideofprinces，morepurelynationalmemorialshadfoundtheirplaceuponthenativerock，themostconvenientsurfacesofwhichweresmoothedforthispurpose。Wherenosuchrockexistedinthesituationrequired，amassivestonewasraisedbyartificialmeansandtherecord，whetherreferringtoavictory，anewboundary，oranyothereventofnationalinterestwasengraveduponit。SuchmemorialshavebeendescribedbyHebrewwritersasaumadorammod，literally，thelipsofthepeople，or，thewordsofthepeople，butactuallymeaningapillar。Recordsinthisformandtheearlynametheyboreaccountforthestrangelegendsofmediaevaltimesreferringtospeakingstones——anamebywhichsuchmonumentswereprobablystillcalledlongaftertimehadeffacedthespeakingrecord，andtheoriginalpurportofthedefacedstonewasforgotten。Insemi-barbarousepochs，liketheerawhichfollowedthepartialextinctionofRomancivilization，popularcuriosityandsuperstitioncombinedwouldseektogiveameaningtothenameofsuch’speakingstones，’andasanexampleofthelegendswhichthusarose，theitinerariumcambriaeofGeraldusmaybecited，inwhichastoneismentionedatSt。David’sasthe’speakingstone’
lechlavarwhichwassaidtocalloutwhenadeadbodywasplaceduponit。ThemostremarkablerockinscriptionsstillremainingarethoseofAssyriaandPersia，butmanynationaltabletsofmorerecentdatearestillinexistence。FortheexecutionofsuchrecordsandthoseofthepalacesofEgyptandAssyria，somekindofsteelpointmusthavebeenused，asnosoftersubstancewouldhaveservedtoengravethemingraniticandbasalticslabswiththesharpnesstheystillexhibit，whichprovesthattheartofhardeningsteel，longthoughtacomparativelymoderninvention，wasknowntotheancientpeopleofAsiaandAfrica。”
Alistofthevariousdevicesofdifferentcountries，bywhichcharacterscouldbelegiblyportrayedwithascratchingimplement，isbestrecapitulatedbyMr。
Knight，whopresentstheminthefollowingorder：
“Thetabulaorwoodenboardsmearedwithwax，uponwhichaletterwaswrittenbyastylus。
“TheAthenianscratchedhisvoteuponashellasdidtheloutwhenhevotedtoostracizeAristides。
“TherecordsofNinevahwereinscribedupontabletsofclay，whichwerethenbaked。
“ThelawsofRomewereengravedonbrassandlaidupintheCapitol。
“Thedecaloguewasgravenuponthetablesofstone。
“TheEgyptiansusedpapyrusandgranite。
“TheBurmese，tabletsofivoryandleaves。
“Plinymentionssheetsoflead，booksoflinen，andwaxedtabletsofwood。
“TheHebrewsusedlinenandskins。
“ThePersians，Mexicans，andNorthAmericanIndiansusedskins。
“TheGreeks，preparedskinscalledmembrana。
“ThepeopleofPergamus，parchmentandvellum。
“TheHindoos，palm-leaves。”
ThewrittendeedsofbiblicaltimewerekeptinvariousstylesofpotteryJeremiahxxxii。14。HandwritingontileswascommoninEgypt，AssyriaandPalestineEzekieliv。I。Suchhandwritingswereontabletsofterra-cottaorcommonbakedclaybricks。
Oneofthekindwasfashionedbyinscribingdirectlywitha“stylus“ontheclay，beforebaking。Another，were“moulds“madefromolderinscriptionsorduplicatesfromthefirstkind。
TheHebrewtermsepher，translatedintoEnglishmeansa“book。”andsomeauthoritiesclaimitisderivedfromthesamerootastheGreek，astone，whichwouldseemtopointtoengravedstonesastheearliestkindsofrecords。IndeednearlyallthepassagesintheFiveBooksofMoses，inwhichwritingismentioned，refertorecordsofthiskind，ortotabletsofleadorwood，occasionallydescribedascoatedwithwax。
Longbeforetheuseofpapyrus，oranylikesubstancewasknownasamaterialforwritingon，thinbrickswerefrequentlyutilizedforsuchpurposes。
TheChinesewroteonslipsofbamboowhichhadbeenpreviouslyscrapedtobeafterwardssubmittedtointenseheatwhichsohardenedthem，thatagraverwouldcutlineswiththesamefacility，ascouldbeaccomplishedonsoftmetallikelead。Thesebambootabletswerejoinedtogetherbymeansofcordsmadeofbarkandwhenfoldedformeda“book。”Differentnationsadoptedothermodesintheirpreparationofsurfacestoengraveon。Manyoriginalspecimenshavecomedowntouswhichpresentdefiniteevidenceofthevarietyofmaterialsandmethodsemployedintheirmanufacture。
Hilprecht，“ExplorationsinBibleLands。”1903，mentionsmanydiscoveriesofsuchspecimens。Hesaysthatmorethanfourthousandclaytabletswerediscoveredduringtheexcavationsof1889and1900。
Theserelicscallattentiononlytoaveryfewdiscoveriesofthischaracter。TherewereotherexplorerswhoprecededHilprechtinthisdirection，andwhowithhimhavethussecuredtangibleevidencewhichfullyconfirmsallthathasbeensaidabouttheemploymentofthemostancientofwritinginstruments，the“stylus。”
Thediamondisalsotobeclassifiedundertheheadof“scratchingimplements“andmanyhistoricalincidentsarerecordedofitsuse。OneofthemostinterestingrelatestoSirWalterRaleighandQueenElizabethandtobefoundinScott’s“Kenilworth。”
SirWalter，usinghisdiamondring，wroteonapaneofglassinhersummer-houseatGreenwich：
“FainwouldIclimb，butthatIfeartofall。”
ThemaidenQueenaddingthewords：
“Ifthymindfailthee，donotclimbatall。”
Biblicalmentionofthediamond，employedasapen，isfoundinJeremiahxvii。1。
“ThesinofJudahiswrittenwithapenofiron，andwiththepointofadiamond。”
Ithasnotalwaysbeenpossibletodecipherandinterpretthecharactervaluesofthemostancienthieroglyphicsorpicturewritingsinscribedonbricks，stoneandmetalslabs，andtheEgyptianmonuments。Themeanstodosowerefurnishedastheresultofaveryfortunateaccidentor“find。”
AFrenchartilleryofficerin1799whileexcavatingthefoundationsforafortificationneartheRosettamouthoftheNile，foundacuriousblacktabletofstone。Onitwereengravedthreeinscriptions，eachofdifferentcharactersanddialects。
Thefirstofthethreeinscriptionswasinhieroglyphic，thenunreadable；thesecondindemoticorshorterscript，alsounknown，andthethirdinalivinglanguagepertainingtothetimeofPtolemyEpiphanes，whoreignedabout200B。C。
ThisrelicofantiquityiscalledtheRosettastone。
JeanFrancoisChampollion，whowithDr。ThomasYoungstudiedtheintricaciesofthesewritings，firstestablishedthefactthatthethreeinscriptionsonthisstoneweretranslationsofeachother。Dr。Young’sinvestigationscausedhimtostudythelanguageincludedinthesecondinscription，andmadehisdeductions，itissaid，“bydintofthousandsofscientificguesses，allbutafewofwhichwereeliminatedbytestswhichheinventedandapplied；heatlastdiscoveredandputtogetherthesetoffundamentalprinciplesthatgoverntheancientwritings。”
Champollion，however，beganatthebottomandhavingsuccessfullytranslatedtheLIVINGlanguage，establisheda“key“oralphabet。Henceitbecamepossible，althoughrequiringsomeyears，tosolvethemysteryofwritingsof4000ormoreyearsold。
Champollionpursuedhisdiscoveriessothoroughlyinthisdirectionastobeabletocompletein1829anEgyptianvocabularyandgrammar。
TheRosettastoneafterremaininginthepossessionoftheFrenchformanyyearswascapturedbytheEnglishonthedefeatoftheFrenchforcesinEgyptandisnowintheBritishmuseum。
Aswritingwithliquidcolorsonpapyrusoranalogousmaterialswhichcouldbeusedintheformofrolls，graduallycameintovogue，thecalamusorreedpen，pencilbrushhairpencil，orthejuncas，apenformedfromakindofcane，weremoreorlessemployed。
The“calamus“followedthe“brush。”justasphonographicwritingwhichdenotesarbitrarysoundsorthelanguageofsymbols，cameafterthepictureorideographicwriting。
Theplaceswherethecalamusgrewandthemodesofpreparingthemarevariouslydiscussedbydifferentancientandmodernwriters。SomeclaimthatthebestreedsforpenpurposesformerlygrewnearMemphisontheNile，nearCnidusofCaria，inAsiaMinor，andinArmenia。ThosegrowninItalywereestimatedtohavebeenofbutpoorquality。Chardincallsattentiontoakindtobefound，“inalargefenortractofsoggylandsuppliedwithwaterbytheriverHelle，aplaceinArabiaformedbytheunitedarmsoftheEuphratesandTigris。TheyarecutinMarch，tiedinbundles，laidsixmonthsinamanureheap，wheretheyassumeabeautifulcolor，mottledyellowandblack。”TournefortsawthemgrowingintheneighborhoodofTeflisinGeorgia。Millerdescribesthecaneas“growingnohigherthanaman，thestemthreeorfourlinesinthicknessandsolidfromoneknottoanother，exceptingthecentralwhitepith。”Theincipientfermentationinthemanureheapdriesupthepithandhardensthecane。Thepenswereaboutthesizeofthelargestswan’squills。
Theywerecutandslitlikeaquillpenbutwithmuchlargernibs。
InthefarEastthecalamusisstillused，thebestbeinggatheredinthemonthofMarch，nearAurac，onthePersianGulf，andstillpreparedaftertheoldmethodofimmersingthemforaboutsixmonthsinfermentingmanurewhichcoatsthemwithasortofdarkvarnishandthedarkertheircolorthemoretheyareprized。
The“brush“alsoholdsitscareerofusefulness，moreespeciallyinChinaandJapan。
TheearliestexamplesofreedpenwritingaretheancientrollsofpapyruswhichhavebeenfoundburiedwiththeEgyptiandead。SomeoftheseoldrelicsofantiquityareclaimedtohavebeenpreparedfullytwentycenturiesormorebeforetheChristianera。
The“reed“penforinkwritingheldalmostundisputedswayuntilthesixthcenturyaftertheChristianera，whenthequillpennacameintovogue。
ReedpenspreservedinexcellentconditionwerefoundintheruinsofHerculaneum。
“Whenhehadfinished，hedriedthebamboo-penonhishair，andreplaceditbehindhisear，saying，’Yakpose’Thatiswell。’Temouchu’Restinpeace，wereplied；and，afterpolitelyputtingoutourtongues，withdrew。”AbbeHueatLha-Ssa。
CHAPTERXXVI。
INKUTENSILSQUILLPENSTEELPEN。
THEQUILLPENTHEMOSTSUCCESSFULANDFITTINGOF
ALLWRITINGINSTRUMENTS——TENDENCYTO“WEAR“
OUT——THESOMETIMESAFFECTIONFOROLDPENS——DR。
HOLLAND’SLINESONTHEPEN——SELECTIONOFQUILLS
TOBEMADEINTOPENS——METHODOFPREPARING
THEM——BYRON’SESTIMATIONOFHISQUILLPEN——ITS
INVENTIONBEFORETHESIXTHCENTURYUNCERTAIN——
EMPLOYMENTOFTHEREEDANDQUILLPEN
TOGETHERUNTILTHETWELFTHCENTURY——WHEN
THESTEELPENCAMEINTOVOGUE——WHOWASITS
INVENTOR——SOMEOBSERVATIONSABOUTIT——QUANTITY
OFMATERIALSIXTYYEARSAGOCONSUMEDINPEN
MANUFACTURE——AFEWREMARKSABOUTGOLD，FOUNTAIN
ANDSTYLOGRAPHICPENS——MORESTEELUSEDIN
THEMANUFACTUREOFPENSTHANINTHATOFSWORDS
ANDGUNS——POETICALLINESABOUTTHEPEN。
THEquillsbelongingtothefeathersofbirdsseemtohavebeenthemostsuccessfulandfittingofallmaterialsforpens，for，thoughsteelandothermetalsarenowusedforthispurposetoanimmenseextent，thereisapowerofadaptationinaquillpenwhichhasneveryetbeenequalledinmetal。Quills，however，likeotherthings，haveatendencyto“wearout。”andthetroubleresultingfromthenecessityoffrequentlymendingquillpensandadesiretowritewithmorerapidityhavebeenthemaincausesoftheintroductionofsteelsubstitutes。Akindofaffectionhasoftenbeenfeltbyanauthororofficial，ortheiradmirers，forthepenwithwhichhehaswrittenanylargeorcelebratedworkorsignedsomeimportantdocument；
oldworn-outpens，aswellasnewones，havebeenpreservedasmemorialsinconnectionwithsuchmatters，andDr。Holland，whotranslatedPliny’s“NaturalHistory“inthesixteenthcentury，recordedanexploitconnectedwithitinthefollowinglines：
“WithonesolepenIwrotethisbook，Madeofagraygoose-quill：
ApenitwaswhenitItookApenIleaveitstill。”
Thequillsemployedforpensweregenerallythoseofthegoose，althoughthecrow，theswan，andotherbirdsyieldedfeatherswhichwereoccasionallyavailableforthispurpose。Eachwingproducedaboutfivegoodquills，butthenumberthusyieldedwassosmallthatthegeeserearedinEnglandcouldnotfurnishnearlyenoughforthedemand，hencetheimportationofgoosequillsfromtheContinentwasverylarge。
Theprocesssurroundingthemanufactureofaquillpenprovesofconsiderableinterest。
“Thegeesearepluckedoftheirfeathersthreeorfourtimesayear，thefirsttimeforthesakebothofthequillsandthefeathers，buttheothertimesforthefeathersonly。Thepenquillsaregenerallytakenfromtheendsofthewings。Whenpluckedthequillsarefoundtobecoveredwithamembranousskin，resultingfromadecayofakindofsheathwhichhadenvelopedthem；theinteriorvascularmembrane，too，resultingfromthedecayofthevascularpith，adheressostronglytothebarrelofthequillastobewithdifficultyseparated，while，atthesametime，thebarrelitselfisopaque，soft，andtough。Toremovethesevariousdefectsthequillsundergoseveralprocesses。Inthefirstinstance，asameansofremovingthemembraneousskin，thequillsareplungedintoheatedsand，thehightemperatureofwhichcausestheexternalskinofthebarreltocrackandpeeloff，andtheinternalmembranetoshrivelup。Theoutermembraneisthenscrapedoffwithasharpinstrument，whiletheinnermembraneremainsinastatetobeeasilydetached。Forthefinestquillstheheatingisrepeatedtwoorthreetimes。Theheatofthesand，byconsumingordryingupthenaturalmoistureofthebarrel，rendersitharderandmoretransparent。Inordertogivethebarrelayellowcolor，andatendencytosplitmorereadilyandclearly，itisdippedinweaknitricacid，butthiswasconsideredtorenderthequillmorebrittleandlessdurable，andwasthereforeasacrificeofutilityforthesakeofappearance。”
“Oh！nature’snoblestgift——mygraygoosequill！
Slaveofmythoughts，obedienttomywill，Tornfromthyparentbirdtoformapen，Thatmightyinstrumentoflittlemen！“
BYRON。
Tolocateanexactperiodfortheinventionofthequillpenisimpossible。Itcouldhardlyhavebeeninusebeforethefourthcentury，probablynotearlierthantwocenturieslater。SomewritershaveassumedthatitwasemployedbytheRomans，butasnodistinctmentionismadeofthembyearlyclassicalauthorswemustaccepttheonlyinformationathand。
IsidorediedA。D。636andcontemporariesstatethatthequillsofbirdscameintouseaspensonlyinthesixthcentury。Itisalsoknown，St。Brovverusbeingtheauthority，thatinhistimeseventhcentury
thecalamusorreedpenandthequillpenwereemployedtogether，thecalamusbeingusedinthewritingoftheuncialinchlettersandcapitals，andthequillforsmallerletters。MentionisalsomadebymanywritersofthefivecenturieswhichfollowedIsidore’stimeofthecalamus，indicatingthatnotwithstandingithadbeensupersededbythequillitwasstillafavoritewritingimplementinsomeplaces。
Theuseofthe“steelpen“didnotspringimmediatelyfromthatofthe“quillpen。”Therewereseveralintermediatestagesadoptedbeforethefitnessofsteelforthispurposewassufficientlyknown，Fromabout1800to1835thenumberofproposedsubstitutesforthequillpenwasveryconsiderable。
Hornpens，tortoise-shellpens，nibsofdiamondorrubyimbeddedintortoiseshell，nibsofrubysetinfinegold，nibsofrhodiumandofiridiumimbeddedingold，——
allhavebeenadoptedatdifferenttimes，butmostofthemhavebeenfoundtoocostlyforgeneraladoption。
Steelisprovedtobesufficientlyelasticanddurabletoformverygoodpens，andtheingenuityofmanufacturershasbeenexertedtogivetosuchpensasmanyaspossibleofthegoodqualitiespossessedbythequillpen。
Theoriginalflexibleironpenofmoderntimeswasanexperimentalaffairprobably，beingmentionedbyChamberlayneasfarbackas1685。
ThefirststeelpensinregularuseweremadebyWise，inLondon，in1803，andformanyyearsthereafter。
Hispenwasmadewithabarrel，bywhichitwasslippeduponastraighthandle。Initsportableformitwasmountedinabonecaseforthepocket。
Prejudice，however，wasstrongagainstthem，andupto1835orthereaboutsquillsmaintainedtheirfullsway，andmuchlateramongtheold-fashionedfolks。
Tohim，however，isduethecreditofbeingtheinventorofthemodernsteelpen。
IthasbeenthethoughtofsomepeoplethatGillottwastheprogenitorofthesteelpen，buthewasnot。
Arnoux，aFrenchmechanic，mademetallicpenswithsideslitsin1750。SamuelHarrison，anEnglishman，madeasteelpenforDr。Priestlyin1780。PeregrineWilliamson，anativeofNewYork，whileengagedasajewelerinthecityofBaltimore，madesteelpensin1800。
Perry’sfirstpenswereofsteel，rolledfromwire，thematerialcostingsevenshillingsapound。Fiveshillingseachwaspaidtheworkmanformakingthem；
thiswasafterwardreducedtothirty-sixshillingspergross，whichpricewascontinuedforseveralyears。
ItwasJosephGillott，however，originallyaSheffieldcutler，andafterwardsaworkmaninlightsteelarticles，asbuckles，chains，andotherarticlesofthatclass，whoin1822gaveimpulsetothesteel-penmanufacture。
Previoustohisenteringthebusinessthepenswerecutoutwithshearsandfinishedwiththefile。Gillottadaptedthestampingpresstotherequirementsofthemanufacture，ascuttingouttheblanks，formingtheslits，bendingthemetal，andimpressingthemaker’snameonthepens。Healsodevisedimprovedmodesofpreparingthemetalfortheactionofthepress，tempering，cleansing，andpolishing，and，inshort，manylittledetailsofmanufacturenecessarytogivethemtherequiredflexibilitytoenablethemtocompetewiththequillpen。Onegreatdifficultytobeovercomewastheirextremehardnessandstiffness；
thiswaseffectedbymakingslitsatthesideinadditiontothecentralone，whichhadpreviouslybeensolelyused。Afurtherimprovement，thatofcrossgrindingthepoints，wassubsequentlyadopted。Thefirstgrossofpenswiththreeslitswassoldforsevenpounds。In1830thepricewas$2。00；in1832，$1。50；
in1861，12cents，andacommonvarietyfor4centsagross。About9，300tonsofsteelareannuallyconsumed，thenumberofpensproducedinEnglandalonebeingabout8，000，000，000。
Bramahpatentedquillnibsmadebysplittingquillsandcuttingthesemicylindersintosectionswhichwereshapedintopensandadaptedtobeplacedinaholder。Thesewere，perhaps，thefirstnibs，theprogenitorsofahostofsteel，gold，andotherpens。
HawkinsandMordan，in1823，madenibsofhornandtortoiseshell，insteadofquill。Thetortoiseshellbeingsoftened，pointsofrubyanddiamondwereimbedded。
Metallicpointswerealsocementedtotheshellnibs。
Doughty，about1825，madegoldpenswithrubypoints。
Goldpenswithrhodiumoriridiumpointswereintroducedsoonafterwards。
Mordan’sobliquepen，Englishpatent，1831，wasdesignedtopresentthenibsintherightdirectionwhilepreservingthecustomarypositionsofthepenandhand。
Thefountainpencarriesasupplyofink，fedgraduallytothepointoftheinstrument。ThefirstmadebySchefferwasintroducedabout1835byMordan。
Thepressureofthethumbonastudinaholdercausedacontinuoussupplyofinktoflowfromthereservoirtothepen。
The“stylographic“isareservoirpenshapedlikeapencil，inwhichtheflowofinkisregulatedbypressureofastyleorfineneedlewithbluntpointuponthepaper。Itmustbeheldinaverticalposition。
Allmarksmadewithone，bothupanddownstrokes，areequalinwidth。
Goldpensarenowusuallytippedwithiridium，makingwhatarecommonlyknownasdiamondpoints。
“Theiridiumforthispurposeisfoundinsmallgrainsofplatinum，slightlyalloyedwiththislattermetal。Thegoldforpensisalloyedwithsilvertoaboutsixteencaratsfineness，rolledintothinstrips，fromwhichtheblanksarestruck。Theundersideofthepointisnotchedbyasmallcircularsawtoreceivetheiridiumpoint，whichisselectedwiththeaidofamicroscope。Afluxofboraxandablowpipesecureittoitsplace。Thepointisthengroundonacopperwheelofemery。Thepen-blankisnextrolledtotherequisitethinnessbythemeansofrollersespeciallyadaptedforthepurpose，andtemperedbyblowsfromahammer。Itisthentrimmedaroundtheedges，stamped，andformedinapress。
Theslitisnextcutthroughthesolidiridiumpointbymeansofathincopperwheelfedwithfineemery，andasawextendstheaperturealongthepenitself。
Theinsideedgesoftheslitaresmoothedandpolishedbytheemerywheel；burnishingandhammeringproducetheproperdegreeofelasticity。”
Itisassertedthatmoresteelisusedinthemanufactureofpensthaninalltheswordsandgunsintheworld。Thisfactpartlyverifiestheoldsaying，“Thepenismightierthanthesword。”
“Threethingsbearmightyswaywithmen，TheSword，theSceptre，andthePen；
Whocantheleastofthesecommand，InthefirstrankofFamewillstand。”
CHAPTERXXVII。
SUBSTITUTESFORINKUTENSILS“LEAD“ANDOTHER
PENCILS。
“BLACK-LEAD“PENCILSANEXCELLENTPENSUBSTITUTE
UNDERCERTAINCONDITIONS——ITSCOMPOSITION——
“BLACK-LEAD“CONTAINSNOLEAD，HENCE
THENAMEISMISAPPLIED——THEDISCOVERYOFITS
PRINCIPALSOURCEOFSUPPLYANACCIDENT——A
DESCRIPTIONOFHOWITISMINED——TREATMENT
BEFOREBEINGINTRODUCEDINTOTHEGROOVED
WOOD——USEOFREDANDBLACKCHALKPENCILS
INGERMANY，1450——THEIRUSEINMEXICOINEARLY
TIMES——WHOMANUFACTURESLEADPENCILS——EMPLOYMENT
OFTHECOMPOSITIONOFLEADANDTIN
INMEDIAEVALTIMES——BAVARIANGOVERNMENTIN
1816AMANUFACTUREROFLEADPENCILS。
THEblack-leadpencil，undermanycircumstances，isaveryusefulsubstituteforthepen，inthatitrequiresnoliquidinkformarkingthecharactersonpaperorothermaterials。Thepeculiarsubstancewhichfillsthecentralchannelofthestickofcedarhasthepropertyofmarkingwhenittouchespaper；
and，asthemarksthusmadearesusceptibletoeasyremoval，apencilofthiskindisavailableforpurposeswhichwouldnotbeansweredbytheuseofpenandink。
Thesubstancemisnamed“black-lead“containsNO
LEADandisacarburetofiron，beingcomposedofcarbonandiron。ItgenerallyoccursinMountaindistricts，insmallkidney-shapedpieces，varyinginsizefromthatofapeaupwards，whichareinterspersedamongvariousstrata，andismetwithindifferentpartsoftheworld。
Itsprincipalsourceofsupplyuntilabout1845，whenitbecameexhausted，wastheBorrowdalemineinCumberland，England，whichwasdiscoveredin1564。About1852anumberofmineswereopenedcontainingthissubstanceinSiberiaandfromwhichplacethebestproductsarenowobtained。
TheaccidentaldiscoveryofthismineralatBorrowdalewasduringthereignofQueenElizabethwhomademanyinquiriesaboutit。Thenameofthismineralwaslocallyknownaswadgraphite。Sovaluablewasitregardedthatitcommandedaveryhighprice，andthispriceactedasininducementtotheworkmenandotherstopilferpiecesfromthemine。Foranumberofyearsscenesofgreatcommotiontookplace，arisingoutofthesedepredations；andtheresultwasthattheproprietorsadoptedsuchstringentrulesthathardlyanythingwasknownoftheinternaleconomyoftheminetillaboutsixtyyearsago，whenMr。Parkesgaveadescriptionofit，fromwhichImaycondenseafewparticulars。
Themineisinthemidstofamountainabouttwothousandfeethigh，whichrisesatinangleofabout45degrees；and，asthatpartoftheminewhichhasbeenworkedduringthelastcenturyisnearthemiddleofthemountain，thepresententranceisaboutathousandfeetfromthesummit。Theopeningbywhichtheworkmenenterdescendsbyaflightofsteps；andinordertoguardthetreasurewithin，theproprietorshaveerectedastrongbrickbuildingoffourrooms，oneofwhichisimmediatelyovertheentranceintothemine。Thisentranceissecuredbyatrap-door，andtheroomconnectedwithitservesasadressing-roomforthemenwhentheyenterandleavethemine。Themenworkingangs，whichrelieveeachothereverysixhours，andwhenthehourofreliefcomes，astewardorforemanattendsthedressing-
roomtoseethemenchangetheirdressesastheycomeuponebyoneoutofthemine。Theclothesareexaminedbythestewardtoseethatnoblack-leadisconcealedinthem；andwhenthemenhavedressedtheyleavethemine，makingroomforanothergang，whochangetheirclothes，enterthemine，andarefastenedinforsixhours。Inoneofthefourroomsofwhichthehouseconsiststhereisatable，atwhichmenareemployedinsortinganddressingthemineral。Thisisnecessary，becauseitisusuallydividedintotwoqualities，thefinestofwhichhavegenerallypiecesofiron-
oreorotherimpurityattachedtothem，whichmustbedressedoff。Thesemen，whoarestrictlywatchedwhileatwork，putthedressedblack-leadintocasksholdingaboutonehundred-weighteach，inwhichstateitleavesthemine。Thecasksareconveyeddownthesideofthemountaininacuriousmanner。Eachcaskisfixeduponalightsledgewithtwowheels，andaman，whoiswellusedtotheprecipitouspath，walksdowninfrontofthesledge，takingcarethatitdoesnotacquiremomentumenoughtooverpowerhim。Whenthecaskhasbeenthusguidedsafelytothebottom，themancarriesthesledgeuphilluponhisshoulders，andpreparesforanotherdescent。
Uptoaboutthemiddleoftheeighteenthcenturytheminewasopenedonlyonceinsevenyears，thequantitytakenoutateachtimeofopeningbeingsuchaswasdeemedsufficienttoservethemarketforsevenyears；
butwhen，atalaterperiod，itwasfoundthatthedemandwasincreasingandthesupplydecreasing，itwasdeemednecessarytoworktheminesixorsevenweekseveryyear。Duringthetimeofworking，themineisguardednightandday；andwhenaquantitysufficientforoneyear’sconsumptionhasbeentakenout，themineissecureduntilthefollowingyear。
Severalhundredcartloadsofrubbisharewheeledintothemine，soastoblockuptheentrancecompletely；
andthisrubbishactsasadamtopreventthespringsandlandwatersfromflowingout，sothattheminegraduallybecomesflooded。
WhentheYear’sminingisconcluded，thebarrelsofblack-leadarebroughttomarket，andthemodeofeffectingthesaleswasdescribedbyDr。Faradaysomeyearsagotobeasfollows：AmarketisheldonthefirstMondayofeverymonthatahouseinLondon，wherethebuyers，whoaregenerallyonlysevenoreightinnumber，examineeachpiecewithasharpinstrumenttoascertainitshardness，thosewhicharetoosoftbeingrejected。Thepersonwhohasthefirstchoicepays45s。perpound，theothers30s。
But，asthereisnoadditionmadetothefirstquantityinthemarket，theresidualportionsareexaminedoverandoveragainuntiltheyareexhausted。AtonetimetheannualsalewassaidtoamounttothevalueofL40，000perannum，butithasbeengreatlyreducedsince。
Amodeofapplyingmanufacturingprocessestothepreparationofblack-leadisdescribedbyDr。
UreasbeingadoptedinParis。Themineral，beingreducedtoafinepowder，ismixedwithverypurepowderedclay，andthetwoarecalcinedinacrucibleatawhiteheat；theproportionofclayemployedisgreaterasthepencilisrequiredtobeharder，theaveragebeingequalpartsofboth。Theingredientsaregroundwithamulleronaporphyryslabandthenmadeintoballs，whicharepreservedinamoistatmosphereintheformofpaste。Thepasteispressedintogroovescutinasmoothboard，andanotherboard，previouslygreased，ispresseddownuponit。Whenthepastehashadtimetodry，themouldorgroovedboardisputintoamoderatelyheatedoven，bywhichthepaste，nowintheformofsquarepencils，shrinkssufficientlytofalloutofthegrooves。Inordertogivesoliditytothepencilstheyaresetuprightinacrucibleandsurroundedwithpoundedcharcoal，finesand，orsiftedashes；thecrucible，beingcovered，isexposedtoadegreeofheatproportionatetothehardnessrequiredinthepencils，theharderpencilsrequiringthehigherdegreeofheat。Someofthepencilsareshapedinacuriousmanner：modelsofthepencils，madeofiron，arestuckuprightuponanirontray，havingedgesraisedashighastheintendedlengthofthepencils；andametallicalloy，madeoftin，lead，antimonyandbismuthispouredintothesheet-irontray。Whenthealloyhascooled，itisinvertedandshakenofffromthemodel-rods，soastoformamassofmetalperforatedthroughoutwithtubularcavitiescorrespondinginsizewiththeintendedpencilpieces；thepencilpasteisintroducedbypressureintothesecavities，andwhennearlydrythepiecesshrinksufficientlytobeeasilyremovedfromthecavities。
Thepencilsjustdescribedarealikethroughoutalltheirthickness，butinthemajorityofEnglishpencilsthereisawoodenholdertocontainanarrowfilamentofblackleadrunningdownthemiddle。Solongagoastheyear1618thismodewasadopted；forSirJohnPettus，whowasdeputygovernoroftheBorrowdalemineunderCharlesII，inhis“FletaMinor。”while，speakingofblack-leadsays，that“Oflateitiscuriouslyformedintocasesofdealorcedarandsosoldasdrypencils，somethingmoreusefulthanpenandink。”Inageneralwaymodernblack-leadpencils，aremadebysawingcedarfirstintolongplanks，andthenintosmallerrods；groovesarecutoutbymeansofacuttingmachinemovedbyafly-
wheeltosuchadepthaswillreceiveasmalllayerofblack-lead；thepiecesofthemineralarecutintothinslabsandthenintorodsthesamesizeasthegrooves，intowhichtheyareinserted；thetwohalvesofthecasearethengluedtogether，andthewholeisturnedintoacylindricalformbymeansofaguage。
Thekindofpencilcalled“crayon“isamixtureofsomekindofearthwithacoloringsubstance。
Theearthemployedissometimeschalk，andatothertimespipe-clay，gypsum，starch-flour，orochre。Thecoloringsubstanceisyellowochre，mineralyellow，chrome，redchalk，vermilion，indigo——indeed，anyoftheusualdrycolors，accordingtothetintrequired。
Besidestheearthandthecolor，thereisagummyliquidrequiredtocombinethemtogether；gumarabic，gumtragacanth，andinsomecasesoil，wax，orsuet，areusedasthethirdingredient。Thecrayonsherealludedtoareemployedratherfordrawingthanforwriting，buttheyobviouslybelongtotheclassofpencilsintheirmodeofaction。
Theancientsdrewlinesandletterswithwoodenstyles，andafterwardanalloyofleadandtinwasused。Plinyreferstotheuseofleadforrulinglinesonpapyrus。LaMoinecitesadocumentof1387
ruledwithgraphite。SlipsofgraphiteinwoodenstickspencilsarementionedbyGesner，ofZurich，in1565；hecreditsEnglandwiththeproduction。TheyaredoubtlesstheproductoftheBorrowdalemine，thenlatelydiscovered。Intheearlypartoftheseventeenthcenturyblack-leadpencilsaredistinctlydescribedbyseveralwriters。TheyarenoticedbyAmbrosinus，1648；spokenofbyPettus，in1683，asinclosedinfirorcedar。
RedandblackchalkpencilswereusedinGermanyin1450；infact，fragmentsofchalk，charcoal，andshapedsticksofcoloredmineralshadbeeninusesincetimesprevioustoallhistoricmention。
WhenCortezlandedinMexico，in1520，hefoundtheAztecsusinggraphitecrayons，whichwereprobablymadefromamineralfoundinSonora。
ThefirmofA。W。Faberarethelargestmanufacturersofleadpencilsintheworld。Theyhavecompiledahistoryofthisimplementofhandwritingwhichtheyhavepermittedmetouseinthestorywhichfollows。
Theleadpencilisaninventionofmoderntimes，anditsintroductionmaydeservedlyberankedwiththelargenumberoftechnicalinnovationsinwhichmoreespeciallythelastthreecenturieshavebeensorich；norcanitbedeniedthatpencilshaveplayedanimportantpartinthediffusionofartsandsciencesandinfacilitatingstudyandintellectualintercourse。
Totheclassicagesandtheirartthepencil，andingeneraleveryapplicationofleadasawritingmaterial，wasentirelyunknown，anditwasnottilltheadventofthemiddleagesthatitbegantobeusedforthispurpose。Thislead，i。e。metalliclead，however，wasinnowayequivalenttothegraphiteorblack-leadofourpencils，whichareonlyhonoredwiththeprefixof“lead。”owingtotheleadencolorofthewritingdonewiththem。
Moreover，inthosedays，leadwasusedexclusivelyforrulingandinnowayforwritingordrawing；itwasemployedintheformofround，sharp-edgeddiscs，similartothosewhich，itissaid，werealreadyusedforthesamepurposeinancientclassictimes。Itisonlywiththedevelopmentandgrowthofmodernpaintingthattracesofpencil-likedrawingsfirstbegintobemet。Atsoearlyaperiodevenasthefourteenthcentury，mentionismadebythemastersofthattime，moreespeciallybythebrothersVanEyck，andagaininthefifteenthcenturybyMenlinkandothers，ofstudiesorcompositionswhichweremadewithaninstrumentsimilartoaleadpencil，uponapaperwithchalkpreparedsurface。
Thistypeofdrawingwascommonlyclassedas“silver-
style。”aterm，however，whichwasnodoubterroneous，astherecouldbenoquestionoftheuseofpuresilverinthisconnection。
InthesamewayitisalsoreportedofthelatermediaevalItalianartiststhattheydrewtheirsubjectsin“silver-style。”uponplanishedfig-treewood，thesurfaceofwhichhadbeenpreparedwiththepowderobtainedfromcalcinedbones，——amethod，however，whichseemsonlytohavebeenemployedinexceptionalinstances。
Butinthefourteenthcentury，drawingswerefrequentlydoneinItalywithpencilsconsistingofamixturecastfromleadandtin；thesedrawingscouldeasilybeerasedwithbreadcrumbs。
Petrarch’s“Laura“wasportrayedinthismannerbyoneofhiscontemporaries，andthemethodwasstillinvogueinthedaysofMichaelAngelo。FromItalythesepencilssubsequentlyfoundtheirwaytoGermany，butitisnotapparentunderwhatparticularname。InItalyitselftheywerecalled“stili。”theequivalentofthewordstylus。Atnotime，however，dothesevarietiesseemtohavebeenthepredominatingmaterialusedfordrawingpurposes。
Inconjunctionwiththese，penswereusedforwritinganddrawing，andatthezenithoftheartperiodofthosedaysblackandredcrayonswerealsousedonalargescale。TheItaliansimportedthebestqualitiesofredcrayonsfromGermany，thebestblackchalkbeingobtainedfromSpain。
Vasariwritesofacertainsixteenthcenturyartist，thathewasequallyskillfulinhandlingthestylusorthepen，blackchalkorredcrayon。
Itwasthisperiodwhichwitnessedthediscoveryofplumbago，amineralwhichwassoonworkedupintoanentirelynewmaterialforwritinganddrawing，——
theleadpencil。
Thisdiscovery，whichwasdestinedtoconfersuchgreatbenefitsnotonlyuponpracticallife，butalsouponart，wasmadeinEnglandduringthereignofQueenElizabeth，forintheyear1564thecelebratedblack-leadminesofBorrowdale，inCumberland，werediscovered。Withtheopeningofthismine，thefirstmaterialstepsweretakentoimplantonEnglishsoilaleadpencilindustrywhichinthecourseoftimewastoassumeimportantdimensions。
ThefirstleadpencilsaresupposedtohavebeenmanufacturedinEnglandinthesecondhalfofthesixteenthcentury。Therawplumbago，or“wad。”asitwaslocallytermed，wassubjectedtothefollowingtreatment：“Onreachingthesurfaceitwassawnintostripsoftherequiredsize，andthese，withoutanyfurthermanipulation，wereinsertedintothewood。
Strangethoughitmayappear，theleadpencilsfirstmanufacturedinthismannerareacknowledgedtohavebeenthebest——andevenatthebeginningofthepresentcenturytheyremainedunsurpasseduponthescoreofthesoftnessandfinetoneofthelead。AlthoughtheCumberlandleadpencilswereingreatdemandowingtothefactthattheywerethefirsttosuccessfullymeetalong-feltwant，theyneverthelessowedtheirpermanentandwide-spreadreputation——
moreespeciallyinartisticcircles——totheirexcellentquality。
Towardstheendofthelastcenturytheblack-leadpencilindustrywasintroducedintoFrance，wherewithsomerestrictionsitsoondeveloped。
Withtheremovalofallrestrictionsonindustrialfreedomin1795，theideawasentertainedofusingclayasabindingmediumforblack-lead。Thismethodofferedseveraladvantages，fornotonlydidtheadditionofclaycauseasavingofalargepercentageofthevaluablemineral，butitgreatlyfacilitatedthemethodofmanufacture，sothatleadpencilscouldnowbeofferedatgreatlyreducedprices。
BytheseimprovementsanewerainthemanufactureofleadpencilswasbeguninFrance。Still，thereremainedmuchtobedoneinthefieldofblack-
leadpencilmakinginordertodojusticetotheincreasingdemandsofartandtherequirementsofmorecivilizedlife。
Itistrue，differentkindsofleadpencilsofvariousdegreeswereproduced，buttheydidnotcomplybyalongwaywiththedifferentusesforwhichtheywereneeded。Themanipulationofthebrittlematerialrequirednotonlydeepstudy，butalsoconscientiousandskillfulworkmen，inordertoimpartthenecessarystandardofperfectiontotheleadpencil。
AmongthevariousGermanindustriesthemanufactureofblack-leadpencilsoccupiedbutaverymodestplace。
ThefirsttracesofitsexistencearetobefoundatStein，avillagenotfarfromNuremberg。Asfarbackastheyear1726thechurchregistersmentionmarriagesbetween“black-leadpencilmakers。”and，atalaterdatereferencesarefoundinthesameregistersto“black-leadcutters“ofbothsexes。
Themanufactureofblack-leadpencils，however，occupiedapositionontheverylowestrungoftheindustrialladder。
ButistimeproceededtheBavariangovernmentdirectedtheirattentiontothisbranchofindustry，anddidallintheirpowertoencourageit；and，asearlyastheyear1766，aCountvonKronsfeldobtainedaconcessiontoestablishaleadpencilfactoryatJettenbach。Lateron，intheyear1816，theBavariangovernmentestablishedaroyalleadpencilmanufactoryatObernzellHafnerzell，andintroducedintoittheFrenchprocess，describedabove，ofusingclayasabindingmediumforgraphite。
CHAPTERXXVIII。
ANCIENTINKBACKGROUNDSTHEORIGINOFPAPYRUS。
FROMWHENCECOMESTHENAMEPAPER——FIRSTCENTURY
COMMENTABOUTIT——KNIGHT’SCOMMENTSMORETHAN
1，800YEARSLATER——PAPYRUSANEGYPTIAN
REED——NAMESBESTOWEDBYANCIENTWRITERS——THE
SAMENAMESASEMPLOYEDINMODERNTIMES——LEAVES
OFPLANTSPRECEDEDTHEINVENTIONOFPAPYRUS——
WHENITWASTHATROLLEDRECORDSCAMEINTO
VOGUE——VARRO’SESTIMATIONASTOTHEORIGINALUSE
OFPAPYRUSNOTCORRECT——REALFACTSRESPECTING
THEINTRODUCTIONOFPAPYRUSBEYONDTHELIMITSOF
EGYPT——CHARACTEROFMATERIALSEMPLOYEDBYTHE
GREEKSBEFORETHATEPOCH——EMPLOYMENTOFIT
FORLITERARYPURPOSES——ADOPTIONOFPARCHMENT
ANDVELLUM——PAPYRUSMSS。EMPLOYEDINTHEFORM
OFROLLSANDTHEREASONFORSAME——ANCIENT
MANUFACTUREOFPAPYRUSINEGYPT——SOMEOFTHENAMES
USEDTODESIGNATEDIFFERENTKINDS——PLINY’S
DESCRIPTIONOFTHEMANUFACTUREOFPAPYRUSANDHIS
MISINFORMATIONABOUTIT——WHEREITFLOURISHED
BEST——PAPYRUSASKNOWNTOTHEHEBREWSANDITS
BIBLICALMENTION——MANUFACTUREOFPAPYRUSIN
THEANCIENTCITYOFMEMPHIS——CHARACTERISTICSOF
THEPAPEREMPLOYEDBYTHEMEXICANS——MR。HARRIS’S
DISCOVERYOFANCIENTFRAGMENTSOFPAPYRUS——
THESTORYABOUTITASTOLDBYTHELONDON
ATHENaeUM——DATESOFTHEOLDESTKNOWNSPECIMENS
OFGREEKPAPYRI——DATEOFTHEFIRSTDISCOVERY
OFGREEKPAPYRI——USEOFOTHERPLIABLEMATERIALS
WITHPAPYRUS——HOWTHEYWEREPREPARED
FORWRITINGPURPOSES——DOUBTSASTOTIMETHAT
ROLLEDRECORDSSUPERSEDEDTABLETFORMS——SUGGESTIONS
BYNOELHUMPHREYS——VIEWSENTERTAINED
BYEARLIERWRITERS。
THEnamepaperisderivedfrompapyrus，areedgrowninEgypt，whosestalkfurnishedforsomanycenturiestheprincipalmaterialforwritingupontothepeopleofthatcountryandthoseborderingontheMediterraneanSea。InthefirstcenturyoftheChristianeratheyoungerPlinyremarks：
“Alltheusagesofcivilizedlifedependinaremarkabledegreeupontheemploymentofpaper。
Atallevents，theremembranceofpastevents。”
AstatementwhichhascausedMr。Knighttomakethefollowingcomment：
“Thisobservation，undoubtedlytrue1，800yearsago，ismuchmoreremarkablysonow；indeed，inconsideringthatpaperaswenowunderstanditwasentirelyunknowntoEuropeinthetimeofPliny，theexpressionofthegreatdependenceuponwhatseemstoussofragileandinefficientasubstituteforrealpaperappearsstrange。”
Mr。KnightalsosaysthattheGreeknamepapuros，mentionedbyTheophrastus，acontemporaryofAristotleandAlexander，wasprobablytheEgyptiannameofthereedwithaGreektermination。ItwasalsocalledbiblosbyHomerandHerodotus，whenceourtermbible。Thetermvolumen，ascroll，indicatestheearlyformofabookofbark，papyrus，skin，orparchment，asthetermliberLatin，abook，ortheinnerbarkofatreedoestheuseofthebarkitself。Hencealsoourtermslibraryandlibrarian。“Book“isalsoderivedfromtheDanishwordbog，thebarkofthebeech。
PlinyquotingVarro，whoprecededhimsometwocenturies，assertsthatbeforetheinventionofpapyrus，thelargeleavesofcertainplantswerepreparedsothattheycouldbewrittenupon。Henceoriginatesourterm“leaves“ofabookwhichintheLatinformfoliumhasalsogivenusthemoderntermfolio。
When，however，thereedpenandthepencilbrushandtheirkindredsubstancesdenominatedcoloredliquidsorinks，cameintovogue，somematerialonwhichcharacterscouldbeinscribedandpreservedintheshapeofcontinuousrollsforrecordandotherusesbecamenecessary。Thepapyrusplantseemstohavemeteveryrequirement。Itisanoteworthyfactthatallinformationwhichcanbederivedfromanysource，specificallycallsattentiontopapyrusandsometimestheinnerbarksoftreesasbeingcoexistentwithpenandink。
Varrohasbeencreditedwithmanystatementswhichinthelightofinvestigationanddiscoveryareprovedtobeincorrect。OneoftheseisineffectthattheuseofpapyruswasanincidentpertainingtotheexpeditionsofAlexandertheGreat。ThisassertionisnotonlycontradictedbyPliny，thehistorian，whocallsattentionto“booksofpapyrusfoundinthetombofNuma“NumaPompilius，thesecondkingofRome，B。C。716-672，butevenatthislatedaymanymonumentsofancientpapyriarestillextantandbelongingtoperiodsmorethanathousandyearsbeforeAlexander’stime。
Therealfactsinrespecttothismatterare，thattheintroductionoftheuseofpapyrustonationsbeyondthelimitsofEgyptwasaneventthatdidnottakeplaceuntilafterthereignofthefirstMacedoniansovereignofEgypt，PtolemyLagusB。C。323when，inreturnforGreekliterature，Egyptgavebackherpapyrus。BeforethisepochtheGreekshadbeeninthehabitofemployingsuchmaterialsaslinen，wax，barkandleavesforordinarywritingpurposes，whiletheirpublicrecordswereinscribedonstone，brass，leadorothermetals。
Papyrusasthenintroducedintothosewesterncountrieswastheonlysubstanceforalongperiodemployedforliterarypurposes。
Parchmentandvellum，whichwereadoptedthereaswritingmaterialsabouttwocenturieslater，weretoocostlytobeusedsolongaspapyruswaswithinreach。
WhentheuseofthisancientpaperhadbecomeestablishedinthecountriesborderingontheMediterranean，alltheMSS。assumedtheformofrolls，beingrolledoncylindersofwood，ivory，bronze，glassandothersubstances。Sometimes，theendsweredecoratedbyvariousornaments。Asaruleonlyonesideofthematerialwaswrittenupon。Thiswasduelargelytothefactofitsbrittlecharacterwhichwouldcauseittobreakifrolledorbentthewrongway。
TheancientmanufactureofpapyrusforexportwascarriedoninEgyptonanextensivescaleandinthemostsystematicmanner。Agradualimprovementinqualitywastheresult，someofthekindsbeinggivenwell-knownRomannameswhicharementionedbycontemporarywriters。ThekindemployedbytheRomansforordinaryusewasdesignatedCharta。Moreexpensivequalitieswereknownas“Augusta。”“Livinia。”“Hieratica。”etc。，thelatterbeingreservedforreligiousbooks。Somekindsweresoldbyweightandemployedbythetradesmenforwrappingpurposes，whilethebarkoftheplantwasmanufacturedintocordandrope。
ThemethodsofthemanufactureofpapyrusasawritingmaterialPlinyundertakestodescribeatgreatlength，andwhileheassertsmanythingsfromprobableknowledgeandtheinformationathandinhistime，yetheisnotalwayscorrect。Hesaysthatthereedstalkswerecutintolengthsandseparated“bysplittingthesuccessivefoldsofthestalkwithafinemetalpoint。”
Mr。Knight，whoinvestigatedthismatterwithcare，isauthorityforthestatement，thatthepapyrusstalkasseenunderthemicroscopeshowsthatitdoesnotpossesssuccessivefolds，butisatriangularstalkwithasingleenvelopewithapithontheinside，whichcouldonlybedividedintosliceswithaknife，eitherinstripesofawidthpermittedbythesidesoftheprism，orelseshavedroundandround，liketheoperationofcorkmaking，andproducingalongspiralshaving。
InthedescriptionwhichPlinygivesofthevarioushomesofthisplantinEgypt，hecallsparticularattentiontoitsabundanceinmarshyplaceswheretheNileoverflowsandstagnates：“Itgrowslikeagreatbulrushfromfibrous，reedyroots，andrunsupinseveraltriangularstalkstoaconsiderableheight。”
Theypossessedlargetuftedheads，butonlythestemwasfitformakingintopaper。Afterthepelliclesorthincoatswereremovedfromthestalk，theywerelaidupontablestwoormoreovereachotherandgluedtogetherwiththemuddyandglutinouswateroftheNileorwithfinepastemadeofwheatflour；
afterbeingpressedanddriedtheyweremadesmoothwitharulerandthenrubbedoverwithaglasshemisphere。
Thesizeofthepaperseldomexceededtwofeet。
PapyruswasalsoknowntotheHebrews。
TheProphetIsaiahB。C。752referstothisplantwhenhesays：
“Thepaperreedsbythebrooks，andeverythingsownbythebrooks，shallwither，bedrivenawayandbenomore。”
Whichpredictionseemstohavebeenlongagofulfilledastheplantisnowexceedinglyrare。
ThemanufactureofEgyptianpaperfrompapyrusitissaidwasquiteanindustryintheancientcityofMemphismorethansixhundredyearsbeforetheChristianera。
TheMexicansemployedforwritingapaperwhichsomewhatresembledtheEgyptianpapyrus。Itwaspreparedfromthealoe，calledbythenativesMagueywhichgrowswildoverthetablelandsofMexico。Itcouldbeeasilycoloredandseemedtobindtoinkveryclosely。Itcouldberolledupinscrollsjustlikethemoreancientrollsofpapyrus。
Thefollowingaccountofaninterestingdiscoveryofafragmentofoneofthe“OrationsofHyperides。”
byMr。Harris，thewell-knownOrientalscholar，isderivedfromtheLondonAthenaeum：
“Inthewinterof1847Mr。Harriswassittinginhisboat，undertheshadeofthewell-knownsycamore，onthewesternbankoftheNile，atThebes，readytostartforNubia，whenanArabbroughthimafragmentofapapyrusroll，whichheventuredtoopensufficientlytoascertainthatitwaswrittenintheGreeklanguage，andwhichheboughtbeforeproceedingfurtheronhisjourney。
UponhisreturntoAlexandria，wherecircumstancesweremorefavorabletothedifficultoperationofunrollingafragilepapyrus，hediscoveredthatbepossessedafragmentoftheorationofHyperidesagainstDemosthenes，inthematterofHarpalus，andalsoaverysmallfragmentofanotheroration，thewholewritteninextremelylegiblecharacters，andofaformorfashionwhichthoselearnedinGreekMSS。considertobeofthetimeofthePtolemies。WiththeseinterestingfragmentsoforationsofanoratorsocelebratedisHyperides，ofwhoseworksnothing，isextantbutafewquotationsinotherGreekwriters，heembarkedforEngland。
UponhisarrivaltherehesubmittedthepreciousrelicstotheinspectionoftheCouncilandmembersoftheRoyalSocietyofLiterature，whowereunanimousintheirjudgmentastotheimportanceandgenuinenessoftheMSS。；andMr。Harrisimmediatelysettowork，andwithhisownhandmadealithographicfacsimileofeachpiece。OfthisperformanceafewcopieswereprintedanddistributedamongthesavantsofEurope，——andMr。HarrisreturnedtoAlexandria，whencehehasmademorethanonejourneytoThebesinthehopeofdiscoveringsomeotherportionofthevolume，ofwhichhealreadyhadapart。Inthesameyear1847
anotherEnglishgentleman，Mr。JosephArden，ofLondon，boughtatThebesapapyrus，whichhelikewisebroughttoEngland。InducedbythesuccessofMr。Harris，Mr。ArdensubmittedhisrolltotheskilfulandexperiencedhandsofMr。
Hogarth；anduponthecompletionoftheoperationofunrolling，theMSS。wasdiscoveredtobetheterminatingportionoftheverysamevolumeofwhichMr。Harrishadboughtafragmentoftheformerpartintheverysameyear，andprobablyoftheverysameArabs。Nodoubtnowexistedthatthevolume，whenentire，consistedofacollectionof，oraselectionfrom，theorationsofthecelebratedAthenianorator，Hyperides。
“TheportionofthevolumewhichhasfallenintothepossessionofMr。Ardencontains’fifteencontinuouscolumnsofthe“OrationforLycophron。”
towhichworkthreeofMr。Harris’sfragmentsappertained；
andlikewisethe“OrationforEuxenippus。”
whichisquitecompleteandinbeautifulpreservation。Whether，asMr。Babingtonobservesinhisprefacetothework，anymorescrapsofthe“OrationforLycophron“orofthe“OrationagainstDemosthenes“remaintobediscovered，eitherinThebesorelsewhere，maybedoubtful，butiscertainlyworththeinquiryoflearnedtravellers。’
Thecondition，however，ofthefragmentsobtainedbyMr。Harrisbuttoosignificantlyindicatethehopelessnessofsuccess。Thescrollhadevidentlybeenmorefrequentlyrolledandunrolledinthatparticularpart，namely，thespeechofHyperidesinamatterofsuchpeculiarinterestasthatinvolvingthehonorofthemostcelebratedoratorofantiquity；ithadbeenmorereadandhadbeenmorethumbedbyancientfingersthananyotherspeechinthewholevolume；andhencetheterriblegapbetweenMr。Harris’sandMr。Arden’sportionsThosewhoareacquaintedwiththebrittle，friablenatureofarollofpapyrusinthedryclimateofThebes，afterbeingburiedtwothousandyearsormoreandthencomingfirstintothehandsofaruthlessArab，who，perhaps，hadrudelysnatcheditoutofthesarcophagusofthemummiedscribe，willwellunderstandhowdilapidationsoccur。
Itfrequentlyhappensthatasingleroll，orpossiblyanentirebox，ofsuchfragiletreasuresisfoundinthetombofsomeancientphilologistormanoflearning，andthatthepossessionisimmediatelydisputedbythecompanyofArabswhomayhaveembarkedontheventure。Tosettlethedispute，whenthereisnotascrollforeachmemberofthecompany，anequitabledivisionismadebydividingthepapyrusanddistributingtheportions。
Thus，inthisvolumeofHyperides，itseemsthatithasfallenintotwopiecesattheplacewhereithadmostusuallybeenopened，andwhere，alas！itwouldhavebeenmostdesirabletohavekeptitwhole；andthatthesmallerfragmentshavebeenlostamidthedustandrubbishoftheexcavation，whilethetwoextremitieshavebeenmadedistinctproperties，whichhavebeensold，aswehaveseen，toseparatecollectors。So，atallevents，suchmattersaremanagedatThebes。
“Mr。Harrismentionsfragmentsofthe’Iliad，’
whichhehadpurchasedofsomeoftheArabdisturbersofthedeadinthesacredcemeteriesofMiddleEgypt，mostprobablySaccara。”
TheoldestknownspecimensoftheGreekpapyriandwhichwerefoundinEgypt，havearangeofonethousandyears；thatis，fromthethirdcenturyB。C。
totheseventhcenturyA。D。
ThefirstdiscoveryofGreekpapyriwasmadeatHerculaneumin1752。Papyrus，however，inthemostancient，periodswasnottheonlypliablematerialusedtowriteonwhichcouldberolledoncylinders。
Linenorcloth，whichhadbeenfirsttreatedwithsubstanceswhichfilledtheintersticesandcharacteristicofouroil-cloth，theinnerbarkofcertaintrees，orinfactanymaterialwhichwouldreceiveinkandrollaroundacylinderwasinvogue。ThisformofmanuscriptwaslatertermedbytheRomansrolles，torollround，ormorecommonlyvolvere，torollover。
Itisnotcertain，however，thatthischaracterofmanuscriptimmediatelysupersededthetabletformofrecordsinscribedonwoodormetal。NoelHumphreysisoneofseveraltosuggest：
“Thereferencetothe’penofareadywriter，’
mentionedinthePsalmsofDavidB。C。1086-
1016couldscarcelybethesharppoint，orstilus，bymeansofwhichcharacterswereengraveduponwoodormetal，butratherthecalamusorjuncas，usedforwritingwithadarkfluiduponbarkorlinen。ThewordvolumeindeedoccursinPsalmsxxxix。，andthesevoluminaorvolumesmusthavebeeneitherrollsofleaves，orbark，orEgyptianpapyrus。”
SomewriterslikeCasley，Purcelli，Haygen，Calmet，andothers，whoalsomoreorlessdiscussthissubject，donotviewitentirelythesame。
CHAPTERXXIX。
ANCIENTINKBACKGROUNDSPARCHMENTANDVELLUM。
THEPERGAMUSLIBRARYCOMPOSEDPRINCIPALLYOF
PARCHMENTVOLUMES——CAUSESWHICHCONTRIBUTED
TOTHESUBSTITUTIONOFPARCHMENTFORPAPYRUS——
ANECDOTEABOUTEUMENESANDPTOLEMYPHILADELPHUS——
INVENTIONOFMETHODWHICHMADESKINS
AVAILABLEFORFLUIDINKWRITING——INTRODUCTION
OFDRESSEDSKINSTHEFIRSTSTEPTOWARDSTHE
MODERNFORMOFBOOKS——WHENPARCHMENTAND
VELLUMSUPERSEDEDOTHERSUBSTANCESASAGENERAL
MATERIALFORWRITINGUPON——MANUFACTURE
OFBARKPAPERPREVIOUSTOTHEINTRODUCTIONOF
THELINENPAPEROFTHEEAST——SOMEOBSERVATIONS
ABOUTCHINESEPAPER——ALLUSIONSOFCLASSICAL
WRITERSTOINSCRIPTIONSONSKINSANDDISCOVERY
OFSPECIMENS——EMPLOYMENTOFPARCHMENTBYTHE
HEBREWS——OLDSCRIPTURALMSS。DISCOVEREDON
PARCHMENT——NAMESOFTHEMOSTVALUABLENEW
TESTAMENTCODICES——STORYOFTHEDISCOVERYOF
THESINAITICCODEXASTOLDBYMADAN——ASSERTION
OFSIMONIDESTHATHEFORGEDIT——PAMLIMPSESTS
THELINKBETWEENCLASSICALTIMESANDTHEMIDDLE
AGES——OBSERVATIONSABOUTTHEMANDSOMEDISCOVERIES
OFTHEMOREFAMOUSONES——USEOFPAPYRUS，PARCHMENTANDVELLUMTOGETHERINMSS。
BOOKS——OBSERVATIONSBYTHOMPSON——CHARACTER
OFTHEROLLSANDRECORDSBELONGINGTOEARLY
PARLIAMENTARYTIMESINENGLAND——COMPARATIVE
METHODSOFTHEIRPREPARATION——MODESOFDEPOSITING
ANDCARRYINGANCIENTENGLISHRECORDS——
METHODOFFINDINGPARTICULARDOCUMENTS——
THEINDIVIDUALSWHOHANDLEDTHEBOOKSOFTHOSE
EPOCHS——CITATIONSFROMKNIGHT’S“LIFEOF
CAXTON“——REMARKSBYWARTON——EXPENSEACCOUNTOF
SIRJOHNHOWARD——METHODSOFTHETRANSCRIBERS
ANDLIMNERSOFTHOSETIMES——MODERNMETHODS
OFPREPARINGPARCHMENTANDVELLUM——CITATION
FROMTHEPENNYCYCLOPaeDIA——PASSAGEFROMA
SERMONOFTHEARCHBISHOPOFTOURS——ANECDOTE
ABOUTTHECOUNTOFNEVERS。
THEgreatabundanceofpapyrusinEgypt，thechiefsourceofitssupply，thegeniusandmagnificenceoftherulersofthatcountry，andthearmyoflearnedmenwhoresortedthither，causedittobecometheprincipalhomeofthoseimmenselibrariesofantiquityalreadymentionedashavingperishedbyfireandtumultsincludedinperiodsbetweenB。C。48andA。D。640。
ThePergamuslibrarywhichwasdepositedbyCleopatra，B。C。32，inthecityofAlexandria，issaidtohavebeencomposedalmostwhollyofparchmentwrittenvolumes。Thereasonorcauseofsuchemployment，ofparchmentinpreferencetopapyrusisattributedtojealousiesexistingbetweenEumenes，KingofPergamus，andPtolemyPhiladelphus，therulerofEgypt，contemporariesofeachother。
ThisPtolemy，B。C。202，issuedanedictprohibitingtheexportationofpapyrusfromEgypt，andhopedtherebytoridhimselfofforeignrivalsintheformationoflibraries；alsothathemightneverbesubjecttotheinconvenienceofwantingpaperforthemultitudeofscribeswhomhekeptconstantlyemployed，bothtowriteoriginalmanuscriptsaswellastomultiplythembyduplication。
BeforethisperiodtheexportationofpapyrushadbeenaveryconsiderablearticleofEgyptiancommerce，butthereafteritbecamemuchcurtailed，andaboutA。D。950hadceasedaltogether。
Eumenes，itappears，wasnottobedeterredfromhisfavoritestudyandpastime，soliecontrivedapeculiarmodeofdressingskins，whichseemstohaveansweredveryfullytherequirementsoffluid-inkwritingmethodsandthusavoidingthenecessityofemployingpaints，theonlymaterialwhichwould“bind“toundressedparchmentskins。
ThattherefinedandluxuriousRomans，aftertheintroductionofparchment，vellum，andpaper，insistedonanimprovementinqualityandappearanceiscertain。
Thisappearsfromvariouspassagesintheirbestauthors。
Ovid，writingtoRomefromhisplaceofexile，complainsbitterlythathislettermustbesentplain，simple，andwithoutthecustomaryembellishments。
Wecansafelydatethefirststeptowardsthemodernformofbookstotheintroductionofdressedskinsparchmentandvellum，assurfacestoreceiveinkwriting。Thesematerialscouldbeformedintoleaves，insteadofmetal，wood，ivory，orwaxtablets，ausetowhichpapyruscouldnotbeputonaccountofitsbrittleness。
Thusoriginatedthelibriquadrali，orsquarebooks，whicheventuallysupersededtheancientvoluminarolls。
ParchmentandvellumgraduallysupersededallothersubstancesinEuropeasageneralmaterialforwritingupon，afterthethirdorfourthcentury。
Theemploymentofpapyrus，however，inecclesiasticalcenterscontinuedevenaslateastheeleventhcentury。
AkindofbarkpaperwasmanufacturedinEuropeprevioustotheintroductionoflinen“cotton。”
“Bombycina“paperfromtheEast。TheancientChinesemadevariouskindsofpaperandhadamethodofproducingpiecessometimesfortyfeetinlength。TheChineserecord，called“Soukientchipou。”statesthatakindofpaperwasmadefromhemp，andanotherauthorityDuHaldeobserves，“thatoldpiecesofwovenhempwerefirstmadeintopaperinthatcountryaboutA。D。95，byagreatmandarinofthepalace。”LinenragswereafterwardsemployedbytheChinese。
Theintroductionof“linen“paperintoEuropedidnotmateriallyaffectorinterferewiththeuseofparchmentorvellumuntilaftertheinventionofprintinginthefifteenthcentury。