Theschoolhasformeditsestimateofthenatureandcharacter
ofthemarketonlyfromacosmopolitical，butnotfromapolitical
pointofview。MostofthemaritimecountriesoftheEuropean
continentaresituatedinthenaturalmarketdistrictofthe
manufacturersofLondon，Liverpool，orManchester；onlyveryfewof
theinlandmanufacturersofothernationscan，underfreetrade，
maintainintheirownseaportsthesamepricesastheEnglish
manufacturers。Thepossessionoflargercapital，alargerhome
marketoftheirown，whichenablesthemtomanufactureonalarger
scaleandconsequentlymorecheaply，greaterprogressin
manufactureitself，andfinallycheaperseatransport，giveatthe
presenttimetotheEnglishmanufacturersadvantagesoverthe
manufacturersofothercountries，whichcanonlybegradually
divertedtothenativeindustryofthelatterbymeansoflongand
continuousprotectionoftheirhomemarket，andthroughperfection
oftheirinlandmeansoftransport。Themarketoftheinhabitants
ofitscoastsis，however，ofgreatimportancetoeverynation，
bothwithreferencetothehomemarket，andtoforeigncommerce；
andanationthemarketofwhosecoastsbelongsmoretothe
foreignerthantoitself，isadividednationnotmerelyin
economicalrespects，butalsoinpoliticalones。Indeed，therecan
benomoreinjuriouspositionforanation，whetherinits
economicalorpoliticalaspect，thanifitsseaportssympathise
morewiththeforeignerthanwithitself。
Sciencemustnotdenythenatureofspecialnational
circumstances，norignoreandmisrepresentit，inordertopromote
cosmopoliticalobjects。Thoseobjectscanonlybeattainedby
payingregardtonature，andbytryingtoleadtheSeparatenations
inaccordancewithittoahigheraim。Wemayseewhatsmall
successhashithertoattendedthedoctrinesoftheschoolin
practice。Thisisnotsomuchthefaultofpracticalstatesmen，by
whomthecharacterofthenationalcircumstanceshasbeen
comprehendedtolerablycorrectly，asthefaultofthetheories
themselves，thepracticeofwhichinasmuchastheyareopposedto
allexperiencemustnecessarilyerr。Havethosetheoriesprevented
nationslikethoseofSouthAmericafromintroducingthe
protectionistsystem，whichiscontrarytotherequirementsof
theirnationalcircumstances？Orhavetheypreventedtheextension
ofprotectionismtotheproductionofprovisionsandrawmaterials，
which，however，needsnoprotection，andinwhichtherestriction
ofcommercialintercoursemustbedisadvantageousunderall
circumstancestobothnations——tothatwhichimposes，aswellas
tothatwhichsuffersfromsuchrestrictions？Hasthistheory
preventedthefinermanufacturedgoods，whichareessentially
articlesofluxury，frombeingcomprehendedamongobjectsrequiring
protection，whileitisneverthelessclearthatthesecanbe
exposedtocompetitionwithouttheleastdangertotheprosperity
ofthenation？No；thetheoryhastillnownoteffectedany
thoroughreform，andfurtherwillnevereffectany，solongasit
standsopposedtotheverynatureofthings。Butitcanandmust
effectgreatreformsassoonasitconsentstobaseitselfonthat
nature。
Itwillfirstofallestablishabenefitextendingtoall
nations，totheprosperityandprogressofthewholehumanrace，if
itshowsthatthepreventionoffreetradeinnaturalproductsand
rawmaterialscausestothenationitselfwhichpreventsitthe
greatestdisadvantage，andthatthesystemofprotectioncanbe
justifiedsolelyandonlyforthepurposeoftheindustrial
developmentofthenation。Itmaythen，bythusbasingthesystem
ofprotectionasregardsmanufacturesoncorrectprinciples，induce
nationswhichatpresentadoptarigidlyprohibitivesystem，as
e。g。theFrench，togiveuptheprohibitivesystembydegrees。The
manufacturerswillnotopposesuchachangeassoonastheybecome
convincedthatthetheorists，veryfarfromplanningtheruinof
existingmanufactures，considertheirpreservationandtheir
furtherdevelopmentasthebasisofeverysensiblecommercial
policy。
IfthetheorywillteachtheGermans，thattheycanfurther
theirmanufacturingpoweradvantageouslyonlybyprotectiveduties
previouslyfixed，andonagraduallyincreasingscaleatfirst，but
afterwardsgraduallydiminishing，andthatunderallcircumstances
partialbutcarefullylimitedforeigncompetitionisreally
beneficialtotheirownmanufacturingprogress，itwillrenderfar
betterserviceintheendtothecauseoffreetradethanifit
simplyhelpstostrangleGermanindustry。
ThetheorymustnotexpectfromtheUnitedStatesofNorth
Americathattheyaretosacrificetofreecompetitionfromthe
foreigner，thosemanufacturesinwhichtheyareprotectedbycheap
rawmaterialsandprovisions，andbymachinepower。Itwill，
however，meetnocontradictionifitmaintainsthattheUnited
States，aslongaswagesaredisproportionatelyhighertherethan
intheoldercivilisedStates，canbestpromotethedevelopmentof
theirproductivepowers，theircivilisationandpoliticalpower，by
allowingthefreeimportasmuchaspossibleofthosemanufactured
articlesinthecostofwhichwagesareaprincipalelement，
providedthatothercountriesadmittheiragriculturalproductsand
rawmaterials。
ThetheoryoffreetradewillthenfindadmissionintoSpain，
Portugal，Naples，TurkeyEgypt，andallbarbarousand
half-civilisedorhotcountries。Insuchcountriesasthesethe
foolishideawillnotbeheldanylonger，ofwantingtoestablish
intheirpresentstateofcultureamanufacturingpoweroftheir
ownbymeansofthesystemofprotection。
Englandwillthengiveuptheideathatsheisdesignedto
monopolisethemanufacturingpowerofthewholeworld。Shewillno
longerrequirethatFrance，Germany，andNorthAmericashould
sacrificetheirownmanufacturesinconsiderationoftheconcession
byEnglandofpermittingtheimport，dutyfree，ofagricultural
productsandrawmaterials。Shewillrecognisethelegitimacyof
protectivesystemsinthosenations，althoughshewillherselfmore
andmorefavourfreetrade；thetheoryhavingtaughtherthata
nationwhichhasalreadyattainedmanufacturingsupremacy，canonly
protectitsownmanufacturersandmerchantsagainstretrogression
andindolence，bythefreeimportationofmeansofsubsistenceand
rawmaterials，andbythecompetitionofforeignmanufactured
goods。
Englandwillthenfollowapracticetotallyopposedtoher
presentcommercialpolicy，insteadoflecturing，ashitherto，other
nationstoadoptfreetrade，whilstherselfmaintainingthe
strictestprohibitorysystem；shewillherselfpermitcompetition
withoutregardtotheforeignsystemsofprotection。Shewilldefer
herhopesofthegeneraladoptionoffreetrade，untilother
nationshavenolongertofearthattheruinoftheirmanufactories
wouldresultfromfreecompetition。
Meanwhile，anduntilthatperiodhasarrived，Englandwillbe
abletocompensateherselfforthelosseswhichshesuffersfrom
foreignsystemsofprotection，inrespectofherexporttradein
manufacturesofevery-dayuse，byagreaterexportofgoodsof
finerquality，andbyopening，establishing，andcultivatingnew
marketsforhermanufactures。
ShewillendeavourtobringaboutpeaceinSpain，intheEast，
andinthestatesofCentralandSouthAmerica，andwilluseher
influenceinallthebarbarousandhalf-civilisedcountriesof
CentralandSouthAmerica，ofAsiaandAfrica，inorderthat
powerfulandcivilisedgovernmentsmaybeformedinthem，that
securityofpersonsandofpropertymaybeintroducedintothem，
fortheconstructioninthemofroadsandcanals，thepromotionof
educationandcivilisation，moralityandindustry，andforrooting
outfanaticism，superstition，andidleness。Ifconcurrentlywith
theseendeavourssheabolishesherrestrictionsontheimportation
ofprovisionsandrawmaterials，shewillincreaseherexportsof
manufacturesimmensely，andmuchmoresuccessfullythanby
continuallyspeculatingontheruinoftheContinental
manufactories。
If，however，theseoperationsofcivilisationonthepartof
Englandaretobesuccessfulasrespectsbarbarousand
half-civilisednations，shemustnotactinanexclusivemanner，
shemustnotendeavourbyspecialcommercialprivileges，suchas，
forinstance，shehasmanagedtoprocureinBrazil，tomonopolise
thesemarkets，andtoshutoutothernationsfromthem。Sucha
policyasthelatterwillalwaysexcitethejustjealousyofother
nations，andgivethemamotiveforopposingtheexertionsof
England。Itisevidentthatthisselfishpolicyisthecausewhy
theinfluenceofthecivilisedpowersonthecivilisationofsuch
countriesaswehavespecifiedhasbeenhithertosounimportant。
Englandoughtthereforetointroduceintothelawofnationsthe
maxim：thatinallsuchcountriesthecommerceofallmanufacturing
nationsshouldhaveequalrights。Englandwouldtherebynotmerely
securetheaidofallcivilisedpowersinherownworkof
civilisation，butalsonodisadvantagewouldresulttoherown
commerceifsimilarexperimentsofcivilisationwereundertakenby
othermanufacturingnations。Onaccountoftheirsuperiorityinall
branchesofmanufactureandcommerce，theEnglishwouldeverywhere
alwaysobtainthegreatestshareoftheexportstosuchmarkets。
ThestrivingandceaselessintriguesoftheEnglishagainstthe
manufacturesofothernationsmightstillbejustified，ifa
world-manufacturingmonopolywereindispensablefortheprosperity
ofEngland，ifitcouldnotbeprovedbyevidencethatthenations
whichaspire，aftertheexampleofEngland，toattaintoalarge
manufacturingpowercanverywellattaintheirobjectwithoutthe
humiliationofEngland；thatEnglandneednotbecomepoorerthan
sheisbecauseothersbecomericher；andthatnatureoffers
sufficientmeansforthecreationinGermany，France，andNorth
AmericawithoutdetrimenttotheprosperityofEngland，ofa
manufacturingpowerequaltothatoftheEnglish。
Withregardtothis，itmustfurtherberemarked，thatevery
nationwhichgainsentirepossessionofitsownhomemarketfor
manufactures，gainsinthecourseoftime，byitshomeproduction
andconsumptionofmanufacturedgoods，infinitelymorethanthe
nationwhichhashithertoprovidedtheformerwithmanufactured
goodslosesbybeingexcluded；becauseanationwhichmanufactures
foritself，andwhichisperfectlydevelopedinitseconomical
conditions，becomesmorethanproportionatelyricherandmore
populous，consequentlyisenabledtoconsumeinfinitelymore
fabrics，thanitcouldimportwhiledependingonaforeign
manufacturingnationforitssupply。
Asrespectstheexportationofmanufacturedgoods，however，the
countriesofthetemperatezonebeingspeciallyfittedBynature
formanufacturinghaveaspecialfieldfortheireffortsin
supplyingtheconsumptionofthecountriesofthetorridzone，
whichlatterprovidetheformerwithcolonialproduceinexchange
fortheirmanufacturedgoods。Theconsumptionofmanufacturedgoods
bythecountriesofthetorridzone，however，ispartlydetermined
bytheirabilitytoproduceasurplusofthearticlespeculiarto
theirclimate，andpartlyaccordingtotheproportioninwhichthe
countriesofthetemperatezoneaugmenttheirdemandforthe
productsofthetorridzone。
Ifitcannowbeproved，thatinthecourseoftimethe
countriesofthetorridzonecanproducesugar，rice，cotton，
coffee，&c。toanextentfiveortentimesgreaterthanhitherto，
andthatthecountriesofthetemperatezonecanconsumefiveor
tentimesmoreofthesearticlesthanhitherto，itwillbe
simultaneouslyprovedthatthecountriesofthetemperatezonecan
increasetheirexportationofmanufacturedgoodstothecountries
ofthetorridzonebyfromfivetotentimestheirpresenttotal
quantity。
ThecapabilityoftheContinentalnationstoincreasetheir
consumptionofcolonialproducethusconsiderably，isindicatedby
theincreaseofconsumptioninEnglandforthelastfiftyyears；in
referencetowhichitmustfurtherbeborneinmind，thatthat
increasewouldprobablyhavebecomeverymuchgreaterstillwereit
notfortheexcessivetaxesonconsumption。
Ofthepossibilityofaugmentingtheproductionsofthetorrid
zone，HollandinSumatraandJava，andEnglandintheEastIndies，
havegivenusduringthelastfiveyearsirrefragableproofs。
EnglandhasquadrupledherimportationofsugarfromtheEast
Indiesfrom1835to1839；herimportationofcoffeehasincreased
eveninastilllargerproportion，whiletheimportationofEast
Indiacottonisalsogreatlyincreasing。Inoneword，thelatest
EnglishpapersFebruary，1840announcedwithgreatrejoicingthat
thecapabilityoftheEastIndiesfortheproductionofthese
articlesisunlimited，andthatthetimeisnotfardistantwhen
Englandwillmakeherselfindependentoftheimportationofthese
articlesfromAmericaandtheWestIndies。Hollandonherpartis
alreadyembarrassedformeansofsaleofhercolonialproducts，and
seeksactivelyfornewmarkets。LetusfurtherrememberthatNorth
Americacontinuestoaugmenthercottonproduction——thatinTexas
aStatehasrisenupwhichwithoutdoubtwillbecomepossessedof
thewholeofMexico，andwillmakeoutofthatfertilecountrya
territorysuchastheSouthernStatesoftheNorthAmericanUnion
noware。Wemaywellimaginethatorderandlaw，industryand
intelligence，willextendthemselvesgraduallyovertheSouth
AmericanStatesfromPanamatoCapeHorn，thenoverthewholeof
AfricaandAsia，andaugmenteverywhereproductionandasurplusof
products；andwemaythencomprehendwithoutdifficultythathere
thereisroomenoughformorethanonenationforthesaleof
manufacturedgoods。
Bycalculatingtheareaofthelandwhichhasuptothistime
beenactuallyusedfortheproductionofcolonialproduce，and
comparingitwiththeentireareawhichisfittedBynaturefor
suchproduction，weshallfindthatatpresentscarcelythe
fiftiethpartofthelandfittedforthisproductionisactually
used。
How，then，couldEnglandbeabletomonopolisethe
manufacturingmarketsofallcountrieswhichyieldcolonial
produce，ifsheisabletosupplyherownentirerequirementsof
suchproducebymeansofimportationfromtheEastIndiesalone？
HowcanEnglandindulgethehopeofsellingmanufacturedgoodsto
countrieswhosecolonialproductsshecannottakeinexchange？Or
howcanagreatdemandforcolonialproducespringupinthe
continentofEurope，iftheContinentisnotenabledbyits
manufacturingproductiontopayfor，andthustoconsume，these
goods？
Itisthereforeevident，thatkeepingdownthemanufacturing
industryoftheContinent，thoughitcertainlyhinderstheprogress
oftheContinentalnations，doesnotintheleastfurtherthe
prosperityofEngland。
Itisfurtherclear，that，atpresent，aswellasforsomelong
timetocome，thecountriesofthetorridzonewilloffertoall
nationswhicharefittedformanufacturingproductionabundant
materialsforexchange。
Lastly，itisevidentthataworld-manufacturingmonopolysuch
asisatpresentestablishedbythefreecompetitionofEnglish
manufacturedgoodsontheEuropeanandAmericancontinentsisnot
intheleastmoreconducivetothewelfareofthehumanracethan
thesystemofprotection，whichaimsatdevelopingthe
manufacturingpowerofthewholetemperatezone，forthebenefitof
theagricultureofthewholetorridzone。
TheadvancewhichEnglandhasmadeinmanufactures，navigation，
andcommerce，needthereforenotdiscourageanyothernationwhich
isfittedformanufacturingproduction，bythepossessionof
suitableterritory，ofnationalpowerandintelligence，from
enteringintothelistswithEngland\'smanufacturingsupremacy。A
futureisapproachingformanufactures，commerce，andnavigation
whichwillsurpassthepresentasmuchasthepresentsurpassesthe
past。Letusonlyhavethecouragetobelieveinagreatnational
future，andinthatbelieftomarchonward。Butaboveallthingswe
musthaveenoughnationalspiritatoncetoplantandprotectthe
tree，whichwillyielditsfirstrichestfruitsonlytofuture
generations。Wemustfirstgainpossessionofthehomemarketof
ourownnation，atleastasrespectsarticlesofgeneralnecessity，
andtrytoprocuretheproductsoftropicalcountriesdirectfrom
thosecountrieswhichallowustopayforthemwithourown
manufacturedgoods。ThisisespeciallythetaskwhichtheGerman
commercialunionhastosolve，iftheGermannationisnotto
remainfarbehindtheFrenchandNorthAmericans，nay，farbehind
eventheRussians。
NOTES：
1。VideWealthofNations，BookIV。chap。ii。TR。
Chapter16
PopularandStateFinancialAdministration，PoliticalandNational
Economy
Thatwhichhasreferencetotheraising，theexpending，andthe
administrationofthematerialmeansofgovernmentofacommunity
thefinancialeconomyoftheState，mustnecessarilybe
distinguishedeverywherefromthoseinstitutions，regulations，
laws，andconditionsonwhichtheeconomyoftheindividual
subjectsofaStateisdependent，andbywhichitisregulated；
i。e。fromtheeconomyofthepeople。Thenecessityforthis
distinctionisapparentinreferencetoallpoliticalcommunities，
whetherthesecompriseawholenationormerelyfractionsofa
nation，andwhethertheyaresmallorlarge。
InaconfederatedState，thefinancialeconomyoftheStateis
againdividedintothefinancialeconomyoftheseparatestatesand
thefinancialeconomyoftheentireunion。
Theeconomyofthepeoplebecomesidenticalwithnational
economywheretheStateortheconfederatedStateembracesawhole
nationfittedforindependencebythenumberofitspopulation，the
extentofitsterritory，byitspoliticalinstitutions，
civilisation，wealth，andpower，andthusfittedforstabilityand
politicalinfluence。Theeconomyofthepeopleandnationaleconomy
are，underthesecircumstances，oneandthesame。Theyconstitute
withthefinancialeconomyoftheStatethepoliticaleconomyof
thenation。
But，ontheotherhand，inStateswhosepopulationand
territorymerelyconsistofthefractionofanationorofa
nationalterritory，whichneitherbycompleteanddirectunion，nor
bymeansofafederalunionwithotherfractions，constitutesa
whole，wecanonlytakeintoconsiderationan\'economyofthe
people\'whichisdirectlyopposedto\'privateeconomy\'orto
\'financialeconomyoftheState。\'
Insuchanimperfectpoliticalcondition，theobjectsand
requirementsofagreatnationalitycannotbetakeninto
consideration；especiallyisitimpossibletoregulatetheeconomy
ofthepeoplewithreferencetothedevelopmentofanation
completeinitself，andwithaviewtoitsindependence，
permanence，andpower。Herepoliticsmustnecessarilyremain
excludedfromeconomy，herecanoneonlytakeaccountofthe
naturallawsofsocialeconomy，asthesewoulddevelopandshape
themselvesifnolargeunitednationalityornationaleconomy
existedanywhere。
Itisfromthisstandpointthatthatsciencehasbeen
cultivatedinGermanywhichwasformerlycalled\'State
administration，\'then\'nationaleconomy，\'then\'politicaleconomy，\'
then\'popularadministration，\'withoutanyonehavingclearly
apprehendedthefundamentalerrorofthesesystems。
Thetrueconceptionandrealcharacterofnationaleconomy
couldnotberecognisedbecausenoeconomicallyunitednationwas
inexistence，andbecauseforthedistinctanddefiniteterm
\'nation\'menhadeverywheresubstitutedthegeneralandvagueterm
\'society\'，anideawhichisasapplicabletoentirehumanity，orto
asmallcountry，ortoasingletown，astothenation。
Chapter17
TheManufacturingPowerandthePersonal，Social，andPolitical
ProductivePowersoftheNation
Inacountrydevotedtomererawagriculture，dullnessofmind，
awkwardnessofbody，obstinateadherencetooldnotions，customs，
methods，andprocesses，wantofculture，ofprosperity，andof
libertyprevail。Thespiritofstrivingforasteadyincreasein
mentalandbodilyacquirements，ofemulation，andofliberty，
characterise，onthecontrary，aStatedevotedtomanufacturesand
commerce。
Thecauseofthisdifferenceliespartlyinthedifferentkind
ofsocialhabitsandofeducationwhichrespectivelycharacterise
thesetwoclassesofpeople，partlyinthedifferentcharacterof
theiroccupationandinthethingswhicharerequisiteforit。The
agriculturalpopulationlivesdispersedoverthewholesurfaceof
thecountry；andalso，inrespecttomentalandmaterial
intercourse，agriculturistsarewidelyseparatedfromoneanother。
Oneagriculturistdoesalmostpreciselywhattheotherdoes；the
oneproduces，asarule，whattheotherproduces。Thesurplus
produceandtherequirementsofallarealmostalike；everybodyis
himselfthebestconsumerofhisownproducts；here，therefore，
littleinducementexistsformentalintercourseormaterial
exchange。Theagriculturisthastodeallesswithhisfellow-men
thanwithinanimatenature。Accustomedtoreaponlyafteralong
lapseoftimewherehehassown，andtoleavethesuccessofhis
exertionstothewillofahigherpower，contentmentwithlittle，
patience，resignation，butalsonegligenceandmentallaziness，
becometohimasecondnature。Ashisoccupationkeepshimapart
fromintercoursewithhisfellow-men，soalsodoestheconductof
hisordinarybusinessrequirebutlittlementalexertionandbodily
skillonhispart。Helearnsitbyimitationinthenarrowcircle
ofthefamilyinwhichhewasborn，andtheideathatitmightbe
conducteddifferentlyandbetterseldomoccurstohim。Fromthe
cradletothegravehemovesalwaysinthesamelimitedcircleof
menandofcircumstances。Examplesofspecialprosperityin
consequenceofextraordinarymentalandbodilyexertionsareseldom
broughtbeforehiseyes。Thepossessionofmeansorastateof
povertyaretransmittedbyinheritanceintheoccupationofmere
agriculturefromgenerationtogeneration，andalmostallthat
powerwhichoriginatesinemulationliesdead。
Thenatureofmanufacturesisfundamentallydifferentfromthat
ofagriculture。Drawntowardsoneanotherbytheirbusiness，
manufacturersliveonlyinsociety，andconsequentlyonlyin
commercialintercourseandbymeansofthatintercourse。The
manufacturerprocuresfromthemarketallthatherequiresofthe
necessariesoflifeandrawmaterials，andonlythesmallestpart
ofhisownproductsisdestinedforhisownconsumption。Ifthe
agriculturistexpectsablessingonhisexertionschieflyfrom
nature，theprosperityandexistenceofthemanufacturermainly
dependonhiscommercialintercourse。Whiletheagriculturistdoes
notknowthepurchasersofhisproduce，oratanyrateneedhave
littleanxietyastodisposingofit，theveryexistenceofthe
manufacturerdependsonhiscustomers。Thepricesofrawmaterials，
ofthenecessariesoflifeandwages，ofgoodsandofmoney，vary
incessantly；themanufacturerisnevercertainhowhisprofitswill
turnout。Thefavourofnatureandmereordinaryindustrydonot
guaranteetohimexistenceandprosperityastheydotothe
agriculturist；boththesedependentirelyuponhisownintelligence
andactivity。Hemuststrivetogainmorethanenoughinorderto
becertainofhavingenoughofwhatisabsolutelynecessary；he
mustendeavourtobecomerichinordernottobereducedto
poverty。Ifhegoesonsomewhatfasterthanothers，hethrives；if
hegoesslower，heiscertainofruin。Hemustalwaysbuyandsell，
exchangeandmakebargains。Everywherehehastodealwithmen，
withchangingcircumstances，withlawsandregulations；hehasa
hundredtimesmoreopportunityfordevelopinghismindthanthe
agriculturist。Inordertoqualifyhimselfforconductinghis
business，hemustbecomeacquaintedwithforeignmenandforeign
countries；inordertoestablishthatbusiness，hemustmake
unusualefforts，Whiletheagriculturistsimplyhastodowithhis
ownneighbourhood，thetradeofthemanufacturerextendsitself
overallcountriesandpartsoftheworld。Thedesiretogainthe
respectofhisfellow-citizensortoretainit，andthecontinual
competitionofhisrivals，whichperpetuallythreatenhisexistence
andprosperity，aretohimasharpstimulustouninterrupted
activity，toceaselessprogress。Thousandsofexamplesproveto
him，thatbyextraordinaryperformancesandexertionsitis
possibleforamantoraisehimselffromthelowestdegreeof
well-beingandpositiontothehighestsocialrank，butthat，on
theotherhand，bymentalinactivityandnegligence，hecansink
fromthemostrespectabletothemeanestposition。These
circumstancesproduceinthemanufactureranenergywhichisnot
observableinthemereagriculturist。
Ifweregardmanufacturingoccupationsasawhole，itmustbe
evidentatthefirstglancethattheydevelopandbringintoaction
anincomparablygreatervarietyandhighertypeofmentalqualities
andabilitiesthanagriculturedoes。AdamSmithcertainlyexpressed
oneofthoseparadoxicalopinionswhichaccordingtoDugald
Stewart，hisbiographerhewasveryfondof，whenhemaintained
thatagriculturerequiresmoreskillthanmanufacturesand
commerce。Withoutenteringintotheinvestigationwhetherthe
constructionofaclockrequiresmoreskillthanthemanagementof
afarm，wehavemerelytoobservethatallagriculturaloccupations
areofthesamekind，whileinmanufacturesathousandfoldvariety
exists。Itmustalsonotbeforgotten，thatforthepurposeofthe
presentcomparison，agriculturemustberegardedasitexistsin
theprimitivestate，andnotasithasbeenimprovedbythe
influenceofmanufactures。IftheconditionofEnglish
agriculturistsappearedtoAdamSmithmuchnoblerthanthe
conditionofEnglishmanufacturers，hehadforgottenthatthe
conditionoftheformerhasbeenthusennobledthroughthe
influenceofmanufacturesandcommerce。
Itisevidentthatbyagriculturemerelypersonalqualitiesof
thesamekindareputintorequisition，andmerelythosewhich
combinebodilypowerandperseveranceinexecutingrawandmanual
labourwiththesimpleideaoforder；whilemanufacturesrequirea
thousandfoldvarietyofmentalabilityskill，andexperience。The
demandforsuchavarietyoftalentsmakesiteasyforevery
individualinamanufacturingStatetofindanoccupationand
vocationcorrespondingwithhisindividualabilitiesandtaste，
whileinanagriculturalStatebutlittlechoiceexists。Inthe
formermentalgiftsareinfinitelymoreprizedthaninthelatter，
whereasaruletheusefulnessofamanisdeterminedaccordingto
hisbodilystrength。Thelabouroftheweakandthecrippleinthe
formerisnotunfrequentlyvaluedatamuchhigherratethanthat
ofthestrongestmanisinthelatter。Everypower，eventhe
smallest，thatofchildrenandwomen，ofcripplesandoldmen，
findsinmanufacturesemploymentandremuneration。
Manufacturesareatoncetheoffspring，andatthesametime
thesupportersandthenurses，ofscienceandthearts。Wemay
observehowlittletheconditionofrawagricultureputssciences
andartsintorequisition，howlittleofeitherisnecessaryto
preparetherudeimplementswhichitemploys。Itistruethat
agricultureatfirsthad，byyieldingrentsofland，madeit
possibleformentodevotethemselvestoscienceandart；but
withoutmanufacturestheyhavealwaysremainedprivatetreasures，
andhaveonlyextendedtheirbeneficialeffectsinaveryslight
degreetothemasses。InthemanufacturingStatetheindustryof
themassesisenlightenedbyscience，andthesciencesandartsare
supportedbytheindustryofthemasses。Therescarcelyexistsa
manufacturingbusinesswhichhasnotrelationstophysics，
mechanics，chemistry，mathematics，ortotheartofdesign，&c。No
progress，nonewdiscoveriesandinventions，canbemadeinthese
sciencesbywhichahundredindustriesandprocessescouldnotbe
improvedoraltered。InthemanufacturingState，therefore，
sciencesandartsmustnecessarilybecomepopular。Thenecessity
foreducationandinstruction，throughwritingsandlecturesbya
numberofpersonswhohavetobringintopracticetheresultsof
scientificinvestigations，inducesmenofspecialtalentstodevote
themselvestoinstructionandauthorship。Thecompetitionofsuch
talents，owingtothelargedemandfortheirefforts，createsboth
adivisionandco-operationofscientificactivity，whichhasa
mostbeneficialinfluencenotmerelyonthefurtherprogressof
scienceitself，butalsoonthefurtherperfectionoftheartsand
ofindustries。Theeffectsoftheseimprovementsaresoon
afterwardsextendedeventoagriculture。Nowherecanmoreperfect
agriculturalmachinesandimplementsbefound，nowhereis
agriculturecarriedonwithsomuchintelligence，asincountries
whereindustryflourishes。Undertheinfluenceofmanufactures，
agricultureitselfisraisedtoaskilledindustry，anart，a
science。
Thesciencesandindustryincombinationhaveproducedthat
greatmaterialpowerwhichinthenewstateofsocietyhasreplaced
withtenfoldbenefitstheslavelabourofancienttimes，andwhich
isdestinedtoexerciseontheconditionofthemasses，onthe
civilisationofbarbarouscountries，onthepeoplingofuninhabited
lands，andonthepowerofthenationsofprimitiveculture，such
animmeasurableinfluence-namely，thepowerofmachinery。
Amanufacturingnationhasahundredtimesmoreopportunities
ofapplyingthepowerofmachinerythananagriculturalnation。A
cripplecanaccomplishbydirectingasteamengineahundredtimes
morethanthestrongestmancanwithhismerehand。
Thepowerofmachinery，combinedwiththeperfectionof
transportfacilitiesinmoderntimes，affordstothemanufacturing
StateanimmensesuperiorityoverthemereagriculturalState。It
isevidentthatcanals，railways，andsteamnavigationarecalled
intoexistenceonlybymeansofthemanufacturingpower，andcan
onlybymeansofitbeextendedoverthewholesurfaceofthe
country。InthemereagriculturalState，whereeverybodyproduces
forhimselfthegreaterpartofwhatherequires，andconsumes
himselfthegreaterpartofwhatheproduces，wheretheindividuals
amongthemselvescanonlycarryonasmallamountofgoodsand
passengertraffic，itisimpossiblethatasufficientlylarge
trafficineithergoodsorpassengerscantakeplacetodefraythe
costsoftheerectionandmaintenanceofthemachineryof
transport。
NewinventionsandimprovementsinthemereagriculturalState
areofbutlittlevalue。Thosewhooccupythemselveswithsuch
thingsinsuchaStatefallthemselves，asarule，asacrificeto
theirinvestigationsandendeavours，whileinthemanufacturing
Statethereisnopathwhichleadsmorerapidlytowealthand
positionthanthatofinventionanddiscovery。Thus，inthe
manufacturingStategeniusisvaluedandrewardedmorehighlythan
skill，andskillmorehighlythanmerephysicalforce。Inthe
agriculturalState，however，exceptinginthepublicservice，the
reverseisalmosttherule。
As，however，manufacturesoperatebeneficiallyonthe
developmentofthementalpowersofthenation，soalsodotheyact
onthedevelopmentofthephysicalpoweroflabour，byaffordingto
thelabourersmeansofenjoyment，inducementstoexerttheir
powers，andopportunitiesformakinguseofthem。Itisan
undisputedobservation，thatinflourishingmanufacturingStates
theworkman，irrespectiveoftheaidwhichheobtainsfrombetter
machineryandtools，accomplishesafarlargerday\'sworkthanin
mereagriculturalcountries。
Moreover，thecircumstancethatinmanufacturingStatesthe
valueoftimeisrecognisedmuchmorethaninagriculturalStates，
affordsproofofthehigherstandingintheformerofthepowerof
labour。Thedegreeofcivilisationofanationandthevalueofits
labourpowercannotbeestimatedmoreaccuratelythanaccordingto
thedegreeofthevaluewhichitattributestotime。Thesavage
liesfordaysidleinhishut。Howcantheshepherdlearnto
estimatethevalueoftime，towhomtimeissimplyaburdenwhich
hispastoralpipeorsleepalonemakestolerabletohim？Howcana
slave，aserf，apeasant，subjecttotributesofforcedlabour，
learntovaluetime，hetowhomlabourispenalty，andidleness
gain？Nationsonlyarriveattherecognitionofthevalueoftime
throughindustry。Atpresenttimegainedbringsgainofprofit；
lossoftime，lossofprofit。Thezealofthemanufacturerto
utilisehistimeinthehighestpossibledegreeimpartsitselfto
theagriculturist。Throughtheincreaseddemandforagricultural
productscausedbymanufactures，therentandthereforethevalue
oflandisraised，largercapitalisemployedincultivatingit，
profitsareincreased，alargerproducemustbeobtainedfromthe
soilinordertobeabletoprovidefortheincreasedrentand
interestofcapital，andfortheincreasedconsumption。Oneisin
apositiontoofferhigherwages，butonealsorequiresmorework
tobedone。Theworkmanbeginstofeelthathepossessesinhis
bodilypowers，andintheskillwithwhichheusesthem，themeans
ofimprovinghiscondition。Hebeginstocomprehendwhythe
Englishmansays，\'Timeismoney。\'
Owingtotheisolationinwhichtheagriculturistlives，andto
hislimitededucation，heisbutlittlecapableofaddinganything
togeneralcivilisationorlearningtoestimatethevalueof
politicalinstitutions，andmuchlessstilltotakeanactivepart
intheadministrationofpublicaffairsandofjustice，orto
defendhislibertyandrights。Henceheismostlyinastateof
dependenceonthelandedproprietor。Everywheremerelyagricultural
nationshavelivedinslavery，oroppressedbydespotism，
feudalism，orpriestcraft。Themereexclusivepossessionofthe
soilgavethedespot，theoligarchy，orthepriestlycasteapower
overthemassoftheagriculturalpopulation，ofwhichthelatter
couldnotridthemselvesoftheirownaccord。
Underthepowerfulinfluenceofhabit，everywhereamongmerely
agriculturalnationshastheyokewhichbruteforceorsuperstition
andpriestcraftimposeduponthemsogrownintotheirveryflesh，
thattheycometoregarditasanecessaryconstituentoftheirown
body，asaconditionoftheirveryexistence。
Ontheotherhand，theseparationandvarietyoftheoperations
ofbusiness，andtheconfederationoftheproductivepowers，press
withirresistibleforcethevariousmanufacturerstowardsone
another。Frictionproducessparksofthemind，aswellasthoseof
naturalfire。Mentalfriction，however，onlyexistswherepeople
livetogetherclosely，wherefrequentcontactincommercial，
scientific，social，civil，andpoliticalmattersexists，where
thereislargeinterchangebothofgoodsandideas。Themoremen
livetogetherinoneandthesameplace，themoreeveryOneof
thesemendependsinhisbusinessontheco-operationofall
others，themorethebusinessofeveryoneoftheseindividuals
requiresknowledge，circumspection，education，andthelessthat
obstinacy，lawlessness，oppressionandarrogantoppositionto
justiceinterferewiththeexertionsofalltheseindividualsand
withtheobjectsatwhichtheyaim，somuchthemoreperfectwill
thecivilinstitutionsbefound，somuchlargerwillbethedegree
oflibertyenjoyed，somuchmoreopportunitywillbegivenfor
self-improvementandforco-operationintheimprovementofothers。
Thereforelibertyandcivilisationhaveeverywhereandatalltimes
emanatedfromtowns；inancienttimesinGreeceandItaly；inthe
MiddleAgesinItaly，Germany，belgium，andHolland；lateronin
England，andstillmorerecentlyinNorthAmericaandFrance。
Buttherearetwokindsoftowns，oneofwhichwemaytermthe
productive，theothertheconsumingkind。Therearetownswhich
workuprawmaterials，andpaythecountrydistrictsforthese，as
wellasforthemeansofsubsistencewhichtheyrequire，bymeans
ofmanufacturedgoods。Thesearethemanufacturingtowns，the
productiveones。Themorethattheseprosper，themorethe
agricultureofthecountryprospers，andthemorepowersthat
agricultureunfolds，somuchthegreaterdothosemanufacturing
townsbecome。Buttherearealsotownswherethoselivewhosimply
consumetherentsoftheland。Inallcountrieswhicharecivilised
tosomeextent，alargeportionofthenationalincomeisconsumed
asrentinthetowns。Itwouldbefalse，however，wereweto
maintainasageneralprinciplethatthisconsumptionisinjurious
toproduction，ordoesnottendtopromoteit。Forthepossibility
ofsecuringtooneselfanindependentlifebytheacquisitionof
rents，isapowerfulstimulustoeconomyandtotheutilisationof
savingsinagricultureandinagriculturalimprovements。Moreover
themanwholivesonrents，stimulatedbytheinclinationto
distinguishhimselfbeforehisfellow-citizens，supportedbyhis
educationandhisindependentposition，willpromotecivilisation，
theefficiencyofpublicinstitutions，ofStateadministration，
scienceandart。Butthedegreeinwhichrentinfluencesinthis
mannertheindustry，prosperity，andcivilisationofthenation
willalwaysdependonthedegreeoflibertywhichthatnationhas
alreadyobtained。Thatinclinationtobecomeusefultothe
commonwealthbyvoluntaryactivity，andtodistinguishoneself
beforeone\'sfellow-citizens，willonlydevelopitselfincountries
wherethisactivityleadstopublicrecognition，topublicesteem，
andtoofficesofhonour，butnotincountrieswhereeveryattempt
togainpublicesteemandeverymanifestationofindependenceis
regardedbytherulingpowerwithajealouseye。Insuchcountries
themanofindependentincomewillgivehimselfuptodebauchery
andidleness，andbecauseinthismannerhebringsusefulindustry
intocontempt，andinjuresthemoralityaswellastheindustrious
impulseofthenation，hewillradicallyimperilthenation\'s
productivepower。Evenifundersuchconditionsthemanufacturesof
townsaretosomeextentpromotedbytheconsumptionofthe
rentier，suchmanufacturesareneverthelesstoberegardedas
barrenandunsoundfruits，andespeciallytheywillaidverylittle
inpromotingthecivilisation，prosperity，andlibertyofthe
nation。Inasmuchasasoundmanufacturingindustryespeciallytends
toproducelibertyandcivilisation，itmayalsobesaidthat
throughitrentitselfisredeemedfromformingafundfor
idleness，debauchery，andimmorality，andisconvertedintoafund
forpromotingmentalculture，andconsequentlythatthroughitthe
merelyconsumingtownsarechangedintoproductivetowns。Another
elementbywhichtheconsumingtownsaresupportedis，the
consumptionofthepublicservantsandoftheStateadministration。
Thesealsomayoccasionsomeapparentprosperityinatown；but
whethersuchconsumptionespeciallypromotesorisinjurioustothe
productivepower，prosperityandinstitutionsofthenation，
dependsaltogetheronthequestionhowfarthefunctionsofthe
consumerstendtopromoteortoinjurethosepowers。
FromthisthereasonisevidentwhyinmereagriculturalStates
largetownscanexist，which，althoughtheycontainalargenumber
ofwealthyinhabitantsandmanifoldtrades，exerciseonlyavery
inconsiderableinfluenceonthecivilisation，liberty，and
productivepowerofthenation。Thepersonsengagedinthosetrades
necessarilyparticipateintheviewsoftheircustomers；theyare
toberegardedinagreatmeasureasmeredomesticservantsofthe
rentiersandpublicemployees。Incontrasttogreatluxuryinthose
towns，poverty，misery，narrow-mindedness，andaslavish
dispositionarefoundamongtheinhabitantsofthesurrounding
countrydistricts。Aprosperouseffectofmanufacturesonthe
civilisation，theimprovementofpublicinstitutions，andthe
libertyofthenation，isonlyperceptibleifinacountrya
manufacturingpowerisestablishedwhich，quiteindependentlyof
therentiersandpublicservants，worksforthelargemassofthe
agriculturalpopulationorforexporttrade，andconsumesthe
productsofthatpopulationinlargequantitiesforworkingupin
manufactureandforsubsistence。Themoresuchasoundandhealthy
manufacturingpowerincreasesinstrength，themorewillitdrawto
itssidethemanufacturingpowerwhichoriginatedinthe
consumptionabovenamed，andalsotherentiersandpublicservants，
andthemorealsowillthepublicinstitutionsberegulatedwitha
viewtotheinterestofthecommonwealth。
Letusconsidertheconditionofalargetowninwhichthe
manufacturersarenumerous，independent，loversofliberty，
educated，andwealthywherethemerchantsparticipateintheir
interestsandposition，wheretherentiersfeelthemselves
compelledtogaintherespectofthepublic，wherethepublic
servantsaresubjecttothecontrolofpublicopinion，wherethe
menofscienceandartworkforthepublicatlarge，anddrawfrom
ittheirmeansofsubsistence；letusconsiderthemassofmental
andmaterialmeanswhicharecombinedtogetherinsuchanarrow
space，andfurtherhowcloselythismassofpowerisunitedthrough
thelawofthedivisionoftheoperationsofbusinessandthe
confederationofpowers；wemaynoteagainhowquicklyevery
improvement，everyprogressinpublicinstitutions，andinsocial
andeconomicalconditions，ontheonehand，andhow，ontheother
hand，everyretrogression，everyinjuryofthepublicinterests，
mustbefeltbythismass；then，again，howeasilythismass，
livinginoneandthesameplace，cancometoanagreementasto
theircommonobjectsandregulations，andwhatenormousmeansit
canconcentrateonthespotforthesepurposes；andfinally，in
whatacloseunionacommunitysopowerful，enlightened，and
liberty-loving，standsinrelationtoothersimilarcommunitiesin
thesamenation——ifwedulyconsiderallthesethings，weshall
easilybeconvincedthattheinfluenceonthemaintenanceand
improvementofthepublicwelfareexercisedbyanagricultural
populationlivingdispersedoverthewholesurfaceofthecountry
howeverlargeitsaggregatenumbermaybewillbebutslightin
comparisonwiththatoftowns，whosewholepoweraswehaveshown
dependsupontheprosperityoftheirmanufacturesandofthose
tradeswhicharealliedtoanddependentonthem。
Thepredominatinginfluenceofthetownsonthepoliticaland
municipalconditionsofthenation，farfrombeingdisadvantageous
totheruralpopulation，isofinestimableadvantagetoit。The
advantageswhichthetownsenjoymakethemfeelitadutytoraise
theagriculturiststotheenjoymentofsimilarliberty，
cultivation，andprosperity；forthelargerthesumofthese
mental；andsocialadvantagesisamongtheruralpopulation，the
largerwillbetheamountoftheprovisionsandrawmaterialswhich
theysendintothetowns，thegreateralsowillbethequantityof
themanufacturedgoodswhichtheypurchasefromthetowns，and
consequentlytheprosperityofthetowns。Thecountryderives
energy，civilisation，liberty，andgoodinstitutionsfromthe
towns，butthetownsinsuretothemselvesthepossessionofliberty
andgoodinstitutionsbyraisingthecountrypeopletobepartakers
oftheseacquisitions。Agriculture，whichhithertomerelysupported
landownersandtheirservants，nowfurnishesthecommonwealthwith
themostindependentandsturdydefendersofitsliberty。Inthe
cultureofthesoil，also，everyclassisnowabletoimproveits
position。Thelabourercanraisehimselftobecomeafarmer，the
farmertobecomealandedproprietor。Thecapitalandthemeansof
transportwhichindustrycreatesandestablishesnowgive
prosperitytoagricultureeverywhere。Serfdom，feudalburdens，laws
andregulationswhichinjureindustryandlibertydisappear。The
landedproprietorwillnowderiveahundredtimesmoreincomefrom
hisforestpossessionsthanfromhishunting。Thosewhoformerly
fromthemiserableproduceofserflabourscarcelyobtainedthe
meansofleadingarudecountrylife，whosesolepleasureconsisted
inthekeepingofhorsesanddogsandchasinggame，whotherefore
resentedeveryinfringementofthesepleasuresasacrimeagainst
theirdignityaslordsofthesoil，arenowenabledbythe
augmentationoftheirrentstheproduceoffreelabourtospend
aportionoftheyearinthetowns。There，throughthedramaand
music，throughartandreading，theirmannersaresoftened；they
learnbyintercoursewithartistsandlearnedmentoesteemmind
andtalents。FrommereNimrodstheybecomecultivatedmen。The
aspectofanindustriouscommunity，inwhicheverybodyisstriving
toimprovehiscondition，awakensinthemalsothespiritof
improvement。Theypursueinstructionandnewideasinsteadofstags
andhares。Returningtothecountry，theyoffertothemiddleand
smallfarmerexamplesworthyofimitation，andtheygainhis
respectinsteadofhiscurse。
Themoreindustryandagricultureflourish，thelesscanthe
humanmindbeheldinchains，andthemorearewecompelledtogive
waytothespiritoftoleration，andtoputrealmoralityand
religiousinfluenceintheplaceofcompulsionofconscience。
Everywherehasindustrygivenbirthtotolerance；everywherehasit
convertedthepriestsintoteachersofthepeopleandintolearned
men。Everywherehavethecultivationofnationallanguageand
literature，havethecivilisingarts，andtheperfectionof
municipalinstitutionskeptequalpacewiththedevelopmentof
manufacturesandcommerce。Itisfrommanufacturesthatthe
nation\'scapabilityoriginatesofcarryingonforeigntradewith
lesscivilisednations，ofincreasingitsmercantilemarine，of
establishinganavalpower，andbyfoundingcolonies，ofutilising
itssurpluspopulationforthefurtheraugmentationofthenational
prosperityandthenationalpower。
Comparativestatisticsshowthatbythecompleteandrelatively
equalcultivationofmanufacturesandagricultureinanation
endowedwithasufficientlylargeandfertileterritory，a
populationtwiceorthreetimesaslargecanbemaintained，and
maintained，moreover，inafarhigherdegreeofwell-beingthanin
acountrydevotedexclusivelytoagriculture。Fromthisitfollows
thatallthementalpowersofanation，itsStaterevenues，its
materialandmentalmeansofdefence，anditssecurityfornational
independence，areincreasedinequalproportionbyestablishingin
itamanufacturingpower。
Atatimewheretechnicalandmechanicalscienceexercisesuch
immenseinfluenceonthemethodsofwarfare，whereallwarlike
operationsdependsomuchontheconditionofthenationalrevenue，
wheresuccessfuldefencegreatlydependsonthequestions，whether
themassofthenationisrichorpoor，intelligentorstupid，
energeticorsunkinapathy；whetheritssympathiesaregiven
exclusivelytothefatherlandorpartlytoforeigncountries；
whetheritcanmustermanyorbutfewdefendersofthecountry——
atsuchatime，morethaneverbefore，mustthevalueof
manufacturesbeestimatedfromapoliticalpointofview。
Chapter18
TheManufacturingPowerandtheNaturalProductivePowersofthe
Nation。
Themorethatmanandthecommunityperfectthemselves，the
morearetheyenabledtomakeuseofthenaturalpowerswhichare
withintheirreachfortheaccomplishmentoftheirobjects，andthe
moredoesthesphereofwhatiswithintheirreachextenditself。
Thehunterdoesnotemploythethousandthpart，theshepherd
notthehundredthpart，ofthosenaturaladvantageswhichsurround
him。Thesea，foreignclimatesandcountries，yieldhimeither
none，oratleastonlyaninconsiderableamountofenjoyment，
assistance，orstimulantstoexertion。
Inthecaseofapeopleinaprimitiveagriculturalcondition，
alargeportionoftheexistingnaturalresourcesliesyet
unutilised，andmanstillcontinueslimitedtohisnearest
surroundings。Thegreaterpartofthewaterpowerandwindpower
whichexists，orcanbeobtained，isunemployed；thevarious
mineralproductswhichthemanufacturerssowellunderstandhowto
utiliseprofitably，liedead；varioussortsoffuelarewastedor
regardedas，forinstance，peatturfasamerehindranceto
cultivation；stone，sand，andlimeareusedbutlittleasbuilding
materials；therivers，insteadofbeingmeansoffreightand
transportforman，oroffertilisingtheneighbouringfields，are
allowedtodevastatethecountrybyfloods；warmerclimatesandthe
seayieldtotheagriculturalcountrybutfewoftheirproducts。
Infact，intheagriculturalState，thatpowerofnatureon
whichproductionespeciallydepends，thenaturalfertilityofthe
soil，canonlybeutilisedtoasmallerextentsolongas
agricultureisnotsupportedbymanufacturingindustry。
EverydistrictintheagriculturalStatemustitselfproduceas
muchofthethingsnecessarytoitasitrequirestouse，forit
canneithereffectconsiderablesalesofthatwhichithasin
excesstootherdistricts，norprocurethatwhichitrequiresfrom
otherdistricts。Adistrictmaybeeversofertileandadaptedfor
thecultureofplantsyieldingoil，dyeingmaterials，andfodder，
yetitmustplantforestsforfuel，becausetoprocurefuelfrom
distantmountaindistricts，overwretchedcountryroads，wouldbe
tooexpensive。Landwhichifutilisedforthecultivationofthe
vineandforgardenproducecouldbemadetoyieldthreetofour
timesmorereturnsmustbeusedforcultivatingcornandfodder。He
whocouldmostprofitablydevotehimselfsolelytothebreedingof
cattlemustalsofattenthem：ontheotherhand，hewhocouldmost
profitablydevotehimselfmerelytofatteningstock，mustalso
carryoncattlebreeding。Howadvantageousitwouldbetomakeuse
ofmineralmanuresgypsum，lime，marl，ortoburnpeat，coal，&c。
insteadofwood，andtobringtheforestlandsundercultivation；
butinsuchaStatethereexistsnomeansoftransportbymeansof
whichthesearticlescanbeconveyedwithadvantageformorethan
veryshortdistances。Whatrichreturnswouldthemeadowsinthe
valleysyield，ifirrigationworksonalargescalewere
established——theriversnowmerelyservetowashdownandcarry
awaythefertilesoil。
Throughtheestablishmentofmanufacturingpowerinan
agriculturalState，roadsaremade，railwaysconstructed，canals
excavated，riversrenderednavigable，andlinesofsteamers
established。Bythesenotmerelyisthesurplusproduceofthe
agriculturallandconvertedintomachineryforyieldingincome，not
merelyarethepowersoflabourofthosewhoareemployedbyit
broughtintoactivity，notonlyistheagriculturalpopulation
enabledtoobtainfromthenaturalresourceswhichitpossessesan
infinitelygreaterreturnthanbefore，butallminerals，all
metals，whichheretoforewerelyingidleintheeartharenow
renderedusefulandvaluable。Articleswhichcouldformerlyonly
bearafreightofafewmiles，suchassalt，coals，stone，marble，
slate，gypsum，lime，timber，bark，&c。，cannowbedistributedover
thesurfaceofanentirekingdom。Hencesucharticles，formerly
quitevalueless，cannowassumeadegreeofimportanceinthe
statisticalreturnsofthenationalproduce，whichfarsurpasses
thetotaloftheentireagriculturalproductioninprevioustimes。
Notacubicfootofwater-fallwillthenexistwhichisnotmadeto
performsomeservice；eveninthemostdistantdistrictsofa
manufacturingcountry，timberandfuelwillnowbecomevaluable，of
whichpreviouslynooneknewhowtomakeanyuse。
Throughtheintroductionofmanufactures，ademandfora
quantityofarticlesoffoodandrawmaterialsiscreated，tothe
productionofwhichcertaindistrictscanbefarmoreprofitably
devotedthantothegrowthofcorntheusualstaplearticleof
rudeagriculturalcountries。Thedemandwhichnowspringsupfor
milk，butter，andmeataddsahighervaluetotheexistingpasture
land，andleadstothebreakingupoffallowsandtheerectionof
worksofirrigation。Thedemandforfruitandgardenproduce
convertstheformerbareagriculturallandintovegetablegardens
andorchards。
ThelosswhichthemereagriculturalStatesustainsbynot
makinguseofthesenaturalpowers，issomuchthegreaterthemore
itisfittedbynatureforcarryingonmanufactures，andthemore
itsterritoryisadaptedfortheproductionofrawmaterialsand
naturalpowerswhichmanufacturersspeciallyrequire；thatloss
willthereforebethegreatestinmountainousandhillycountries
lesssuitableforagricultureonthewhole，butwhichofferto
manufacturesplentyofwaterpower，ofminerals，timber，andstone，
andtothefarmertheopportunityofcultivatingtheproductswhich
arespeciallyrequiredbythemanufacturer。
Countrieswithatemperateclimatearealmostwithout
exceptionadaptedforfactoriesandmanufacturingindustry。The
moderatetemperatureoftheairpromotesthedevelopmentand
exertionofpowerfarmorethanahottemperature。Butthesevere
seasonoftheyear，whichappearstothesuperficialobserverasan
unfavourableeffectofnature，isthemostpowerfulpromoterof
habitsofenergeticactivity，offorethought，order，andeconomy。
Amanwhohastheprospectbeforehimofsixmonthsinwhichheis
notmerelyunabletoobtainanyfruitsfromtheearth，butalso
requiresspecialprovisionsandclothingmaterialsforthe
sustenanceofhimselfandhiscattle，andforprotectionagainst
theeffectsofcold，mustnecessarilybecomefarmoreindustrious
andeconomicalthantheonewhomerelyrequiresprotectionfromthe
rain，andintowhosemouththefruitsarereadytodropduringthe
wholeyear。Diligence，economy，order，andforethoughtareatfirst
producedbynecessityafterwardsbyhabit，andbythesteady
cultivationofthosevirtues。Moralitygoeshandinhandwiththe
exertionofone\'spowersandeconomy，andimmoralitywithidleness
andextravagance：eacharereciprocallyfertilesources，theoneof
power，theotherofweakness。
Anagriculturalnation，whichinhabitsacountryoftemperate
climate，leavesthereforetherichestpartofitsnaturalresources
unutilised。