Astheclassicformofthisoriginalgens，MorgantakesthegensamongtheIroquois，andespeciallyintheSenecatribe。Inthistribethereareeightgentes，namedafteranimals：1Wolf，2Bear，3Turtle，4Beaver，5Deer，6Snipe，7Heron，8Hawk。Ineverygensthefollowingcustomsareobserved：
1。Thegenselectsitssachemheadofthegensinpeaceanditschiefleaderinwar。Thesachemhadtobechosenfromamongthemembersofthegens，andhisofficewashereditarywithinthegens，inthesensethatithadtobefilledimmediatelyasoftenasavacancyoccurred。themilitaryleadercouldbechosenfromoutsidethegens，andforatimetheofficemightevenbevacant。Asonwasneverchosentosucceedhisfatherassachem，sincemother-rightprevailedamongtheIroquoisandthesonconsequentlybelongedtoadifferentgens。buttheofficemightandoftendidpasstoabrotheroftheprevioussachemortohissister’sson。Allvotedintheelections，bothmenandwomen。Theelection，however，stillrequiredtheconfirmationofthesevenremaininggentes，andonlythenwasthenewsachemceremoniallyinvestedwithhisofficebythecommoncouncilofthewholeIroquoisconfederacy。Thesignificanceofthiswillappearlater。Theauthorityofthesachemwithinthegenswaspaternal，andpurelymoralincharacter。hehadnomeansofcoercion。ByvirtueofhisofficehewasalsoamemberofthetribalcounciloftheSenecasandalsoofthefederalcouncilofalltheIroquois。Thewar-chiefcouldonlygiveordersonmilitaryexpeditions。
2。Thegensdeposesthesachemandwar-chiefatwill。Thisalsoisdonebymenandwomenjointly。Afterasachemorchiefhadbeendeposed，theybecamesimplebraves，privatepersons，liketheothermembers。Thetribalcouncilalsohadthepowertodeposesachems，evenagainstthewillofthegens。
3。Nomemberispermittedtomarrywithinthegens。Thisisthefundamentallawofthegens，thebondwhichholdsittogether。Itisthenegativeexpressionoftheverypositivebloodrelationship，byvirtueofwhichtheindividualsitcomprisesbecomeagens。ByhisdiscoveryofthissimplefactMorganhasrevealedforthefirsttimethenatureofthegens。Howlittlethegenswasunderstoodbeforeisobviousfromtheearlierreportsaboutsavagesandbarbarians，inwhichthevariousbodiesoutofwhichthegentileorganizationiscomposedareignorantlyandindiscriminatelyreferredtoastribe，clan，thum，andsoforth，andthensometimesdesignatedasbodieswithinwhichmarriageisprohibited。ThuswascreatedthehopelessconfusionwhichgaveMr。McLennanhischancetoappearasNapoleon，establishingorderbyhisdecree：Alltribesaredividedintothosewithinwhichmarriageisprohibitedexogamousandthosewithinwhichitispermittedendogamous。Havingnowmadethemuddlecomplete，hecouldgivehimselfuptotheprofoundestinquiriesastowhichofhistwoabsurdclasseswastheolderexogamyorendogamy。Allthisnonsensepromptlystoppedofitselfwiththediscoveryofthegensandofitsbasisinconsanguinity，involvingtheexclusionofitsmembersfromintermarriagewithoneanother。ItgoeswithoutsayingthatatthestageatwhichwefindtheIroquoistheprohibitionofmarriagewithinthegenswasstringentlyobserved。
4。Thepropertyofdeceasedpersonspassedtotheothermembersofthegens。ithadtoremaininthegens。AsanIroquoishadonlythingsoflittlevaluetoleave，theinheritancewassharedbyhisnearestgentilerelations。inthecaseofaman，byhisownbrothersandsistersandmaternaluncle。inthecaseofawoman，byherchildrenandownsisters，butnotbyherbrothers。Forthisreasonmanandwifecouldnotinheritfromoneanother，norchildrenfromtheirfather。
5。Themembersofthegensowedeachotherhelp，protection，andespeciallyassistanceinavenginginjurybystrangers。Theindividuallookedforhissecuritytotheprotectionofthegens，andcouldrelyuponreceivingit。towronghimwastowronghiswholegens。Fromthebondsofbloodunitingthegenssprangtheobligationofbloodrevenge，whichtheIroquoisunconditionallyrecognized。Ifanypersonfromoutsidethegenskilledagentilemember，theobligationofbloodrevengerestedontheentiregensoftheslainman。First，mediationwastried。thegensoftheslayersatincouncil，andmadeproposalsofsettlementtothecouncilofthegensoftheslain，usuallyofferingexpressionsofregretandpresentsofconsiderablevalue。Ifthesewereaccepted，thematterwasdisposedof。Inthecontrarycase，thewrongedgensappointedoneormoreavengers，whosedutyitwastopursueandkilltheslayer。Ifthiswasaccomplished，thegensoftheslayerhadnogroundofcomplaint。accountswereevenandclosed。
6。Thegenshasspecialnamesorclassesofnames，whichmaynotbeusedbyanyothergensinthewholetribe，sothatthenameoftheindividualindicatesthegenstowhichhebelongs。Agentilenameconfersofitselfgentilerights。
7。Thegenscanadoptstrangersandtherebyadmitthemintothewholetribe。ThusamongtheSenecastheprisonersofwarwhowerenotkilledbecamethroughadoptionintoagensmembersofthetribe，receivingfullgentileandtribalrights。Theadoptiontookplaceontheproposalofindividualmembersofthegens。ifamanadopted，heacceptedthestrangerasbrotherorsister。ifawoman，assonordaughter。Theadoptionhadtobeconfirmedbyceremonialacceptanceintothetribe。Frequentlyagenswhichwasexceptionallyreducedinnumberswasreplenishedbymassadoptionfromanothergens，withitsconsent。AmongtheIroquoistheceremonyofadoptionintothegenswasperformedatapubliccouncilofthetribe，andthereforewasactuallyareligiousrite。
8。SpecialreligiousceremoniescanhardlybefoundamongtheIndiangentes。thereligiousritesoftheIndiansare，however，moreorlessconnectedwiththegens。AtthesixyearlyreligiousfestivalsoftheIroquoisthesachemsandwar-chiefsofthedifferentgenteswereincludedexofficioamongtheKeepersoftheFaithandhadpriestlyfunctions。
9。Thegenshasacommonburialplace。AmongtheIroquoisofNewYorkState，whoarehedgedinonallsidesbywhitepeople，thishasdisappeared，butitexistedformerly。ItexistsstillamongotherIndians-forexample，amongtheTuscaroras，whoarecloselyrelatedtotheIroquois。althoughtheyareChristians，eachgenshasaseparaterowinthecemetery。themotheristhereforeburiedinthesamerowasherchildren，butnotthefather。AndamongtheIroquoisalsothewholegensofthedeceasedattendstheburial，preparesthegrave，thefuneraladdresses，etc。
10。Thegenshasacouncil：thedemocraticassemblyofallmaleandfemaleadultgentiles，allwithequalvotes。Thiscouncilelectedsachems，war-chiefsandalsotheotherKeepersoftheFaith，anddeposedthem。ittookdecisionsregardingbloodrevengeorpaymentofatonementformurderedgentiles。itadoptedstrangersintothegens。
Inshort，itwasthesovereignpowerinthegens。SuchweretherightsandprivilegesofatypicalIndiangens。
AllthemembersofanIroquoisgenswerepersonallyfree，andtheywereboundtodefendeachother’sfreedom。theywereequalinprivilegesandinpersonalrights，thesachemandchiefsclaimingnosuperiority。andtheywereabrotherhoodboundtogetherbythetiesofkin。Liberty，equality，andfraternity，thoughneverformulated，werecardinalprinciplesofthegens。Thesefactsarematerial，becausethegenswastheunitofasocialandgovernmentalsystem，thefoundationuponwhichIndiansocietywasorganized……ItservestoexplainthatsenseofindependenceandpersonaldignityuniversallyanattributeofIndiancharacter。[3]
TheIndiansofthewholeofNorthAmericaatthetimeofitsdiscoverywereorganizedingentesundermother-right。Thegenteshaddisappearedonlyinsometribes，asamongtheDakotas。inothers，asamongtheOjibwasandtheOmahas，theywereorganizedaccordingtofather-right。
AmongverymanyIndiantribeswithmorethanfiveorsixgentes，wefindeverythree，four，ormoregentesunitedinaspecialgroup，whichMorgan，renderingtheIndiannamefaithfullybyitsGreekequivalent，callsaphratrybrotherhood。ThustheSenecashavetwophratries：
thefirstcomprisesgentes1to4，thesecondgentes5to8。Closerinvestigationshowsthatthesephratriesgenerallyrepresenttheoriginalgentesintowhichthetribefirstsplitup。forsincemarriagewasprohibitedwithinthegens，therehadtobeatleasttwogentesinanytribetoenableittoexistindependently。
Inthemeasureinwhichthetribeincreased，eachgensdividedagainintotwoormoregentes，eachofwhichnowappearsasaseparategens，whiletheoriginalgens，whichincludesallthedaughtergentes，continuesasthephratry。AmongtheSenecasandmostotherIndians，thegenteswithinonephratryarebrothergentestooneanother，whilethoseintheotherphratryaretheircousingentes-termswhichintheAmericansystemofconsanguinityhave，aswehaveseen，averyrealandexpressivemeaning。OriginallynoSenecawasallowedtomarrywithinhisphratry，butthisrestrictionhaslongsincebecomeobsoleteandisnowconfinedtothegens。AccordingtoSenecantradition，theBearandtheDeerwerethetwooriginalgentes，fromwhichtheothersbranchedoff。Afterthisnewinstitutionhadoncetakenfirmroot，itwasmodifiedasrequired。ifthegentesinonephratrydiedout，entiregentesweresometimestransferredintoitfromotherphratriestomakethenumberseven。Hencewefindgentesofthesamenamegroupedindifferentphratriesindifferenttribes。
AmongtheIroquois，thefunctionsofthephratryarepartlysocial，partlyreligious。
1。Intheballgameonephratryplaysagainstanother。Eachphratryputsforwarditsbestplayers，whiletheothermembers，groupedaccordingtophratries，lookonandbetagainstoneanotheronthevictoryoftheirplayers。
2。Inthetribalcouncilthesachemsandthewar-chiefsofeachphratrysittogether，thetwogroupsfacingoneanother。eachspeakeraddressestherepresentativesofeachphratryasaseparatebody。
3。Ifamurderhadbeencommittedinthetribe，andtheslayerandtheslainbelongedtodifferentphratries，theinjuredgensoftenappealedtoitsbrothergentes。theseheldacouncilofthephratryandappealedinabodytotheotherphratrythatitalsoshouldassembleitscounciltoeffectasettlement。Herethephratryreappearsastheoriginalgens，andwithgreaterprospectofsuccessthantheweakersinglegens，itsoffspring。
4。Atthedeathofprominentpersonstheoppositephratrysawtotheintermentandtheburialceremonies，whilethephratryofthedeadpersonattendedasmourners。Ifasachemdied，theoppositephratryreportedtothefederalcounciloftheIroquoisthattheofficewasvacant。
5。Thecouncilofthephratryalsoplayedapartintheelectionofasachem。Thattheelectionwouldbeconfirmedbythebrothergenteswasmoreorlesstakenforgranted，butthegentesoftheoppositephratrymightraiseanobjection。Inthiscasethecounciloftheoppositephratrywasassembled。ifitmaintainedtheobjection，theelectionwasvoid。
6。TheIroquoisformerlyhadspecialreligiousmysteries，calledmedicinelodgesbythewhitemen。AmongtheSenecas，thesemysterieswerecelebratedbytworeligiousbrotherhoods，intowhichnewmemberswereadmittedbyformalinitiation。therewasonesuchbrotherhoodineachofthetwophratries。
7。If，asisalmostcertain，thefourlineagesoccupyingthefourquartersofTlascalaatthetimeoftheconquestwerefourphratries，weherehaveproofthatthephratrieswerealsomilitaryunits，likethephratriesamongtheGreeksandsimilarkinshiporganizationsamongtheGermans。thesefourlineageswentintobattleasseparategroups，eachwithitsownuniformandflag，andunderitsownleader。
Asseveralgentesmakeupaphratry，sointheclassicformseveralphratriesmakeupatribe。insomecases，whentribeshavebeenmuchweakened，theintermediateform，thephratry，isabsent。WhatdistinguishesanIndiantribeinAmerica？
1。ITSOWNTERRITORYANDNAME。Inadditiontoitsactualplaceofsettlement，everytribefurtherpossessedconsiderableterritoryforhuntingandlashing。Beyondthatlayabroadstripofneutrallandreachingtotheterritoryoftheneighboringtribe。itwassmallerbetweentribesrelatedinlanguage，largerbetweentribesnotsorelated。ItisthesameastheboundaryforestoftheGermans，thewastemadebyCaesar’sSueviaroundtheirterritory，theisarnholtinDanish，jarnved，limesDanicusbetweenDanesandGermans，theSachsenwaldSaxonwoodandbraniborSlav，protectingwoodbetweenGermansandSlavs，fromwhichBrandenburgtakesitsname。Theterritorydelimitedbytheseuncertainboundarieswasthecommonlandofthetribe，recognizedassuchbyneighboringtribesanddefendedbythetribeitselfagainstattacks。Inmostcasestheuncertaintyoftheboundariesonlybecameapracticaldisadvantagewhentherehadbeenagreatincreaseinpopulation。Thenamesofthetribesseemgenerallytohavearisenbychanceratherthantohavebeendeliberatelychosen。
inthecourseoftimeitoftenhappenedthatatribewascalledbyanothernameamongtheneighboringtribesthanthatwhichituseditself，justastheGermanswerefirstcalledGermansbytheCelts。
2。ADISTINCTDIALECTPECULIARTOTHETRIBEALONE。Tribeanddialectaresubstantiallycoextensive。theformationthroughsegmentationofnewtribesanddialectswasstillproceedinginAmericauntilquiterecently，andmostprobablyhasnotentirelystoppedeventoday。Whentwoweakenedtribeshavemergedintoone，theexceptionalcaseoccursoftwocloselyrelateddialectsbeingspokeninthesametribe。TheaveragestrengthofAmericantribesisunder2，000members。theCherokees，however，numberabout26，000，thegreatestnumberofIndiansintheUnitedStatesspeakingthesamedialect。
3。THERIGHTTOINSTALLINTOOFFICETHESACHEMSANDWAR-CHIEFSELECTED
BYTHEGENTESANDTHERIGHTTODEPOSETHEM，evenagainstthewilloftheirgens。Asthesesachemsandwar-chiefsaremembersofthecouncilofthetribe，theserightsofthetribeinregardtothemexplainthemselves。Whereaconfederacyoftribeshadbeenformed，withallthetribesrepresentedinafederalcouncil，theserightsweretransferredtothelatter。
4。THEPOSSESSIONOFCOMMONRELIGIOUSCONCEPTIONSMYTHOLOGYAND
CEREMONIES。AfterthefashionofbarbarianstheAmericanIndianswereareligiouspeople。[4]Theirmythologyhasnotyetbeenstudiedatallcritically。Theyalreadyembodiedtheirreligiousideas-spiritsofeverykind-inhumanform。butthelowerstageofbarbarism，whichtheyhadreached，stillknowsnoplasticrepresentations，so-calledidols。
Theirreligionisacultofnatureandofelementalforces，inprocessofdevelopmenttopolytheism。Thevarioustribeshadtheirregularfestivals，withdefiniterites，especiallydancesandgames。Dancingparticularlywasanessentialpartofallreligiousceremonies。eachtribehelditsowncelebrationseparately。
5。ATRIBALCOUNCILFORTHECOMMONAFFAIRSOFTHETRIBE。Itwascomposedofallthesachemsandwar-chiefsofthedifferentgentes，whoweregenuinelyrepresentativebecausetheycouldbedeposedatanytime。Ithelditsdeliberationsinpublic，surroundedbytheothermembersofthetribe，whohadtherighttojoinfreelyinthediscussionandtomaketheirviewsheard。Thedecisionrestedwiththecouncil。Asarule，everyonewasgivenahearingwhoaskedforit。thewomencouldalsohavetheirviewsexpressedbyaspeakeroftheirownchoice。AmongtheIroquoisthefinaldecisionhadtobeunanimous，aswasalsothecaseinregardtomanydecisionsoftheGermanmarkcommunities。Thetribalcouncilwasresponsibleespeciallyforthehandlingofrelationswithothertribes。itreceivedandsentembassies，declaredwarandmadepeace。Ifwarbrokeout，itwasgenerallycarriedonbyvolunteers。Inprinciple，everytribewasconsideredtobeinastateofwarwitheveryothertribewithwhichithadnotexpresslyconcludedatreatyofpeace。Militaryexpeditionsagainstsuchenemiesweregenerallyorganizedbyprominentindividualwarriors。theyheldawar-dance，andwhoeverjoinedinthedanceannouncedtherebyhisparticipationintheexpedition。Thecolumnwasatonceformed，andstartedoff。Thedefenseofthetribalterritorywhenattackedwasalsogenerallycarriedoutbyvolunteers。Thedepartureandreturnofsuchcolumnswerealwaysanoccasionofpublicfestivities。Theconsentofthetribalcouncilwasnotrequiredforsuchexpeditions，andwasneitheraskednorgiven。TheyfindtheirexactcounterpartintheprivatewarexpeditionsoftheGermanretinuesdescribedbyTacitus，onlywiththedifferencethatamongtheGermanstheretinueshavealreadyacquiredamorepermanentcharacter，formingafirmcorealreadyorganizedinpeacetimetowhichtheothervolunteersareattachedineventofwar。Thesewarpartiesareseldomlarge。themostimportantexpeditionsoftheIndians，eventogreatdistances，wereundertakenwithinsignificantforces。Ifseveralsuchpartiesunitedforoperationsonalargescale，eachwasundertheordersonlyofitsownleader。Unityintheplanofcampaignwassecuredwellorillbyacounciloftheseleaders。ItisthesamemannerofwarfareaswefinddescribedbyAmmianusMarcellinusamongtheAlemanniontheUpperRhineinthefourthcentury。
6。AMONGSOMETRIBESWEFINDAHEADCHIEF，WHOSEPOWERS，HOWEVER，ARE
VERYSLIGHT。Heisoneofthesachems，andinsituationsdemandingswiftactionhehastotakeprovisionalmeasures，untilthecouncilcanassembleandmakeadefinitedecision。Hisfunctionrepresentsthefirstfeebleattemptatthecreationofanofficialwithexecutivepower，thoughgenerallynothingmorecameofit。asweshallsee，theexecutiveofficialdevelopedinmostcases，ifnotinall，outofthechiefmilitarycommander。
ThegreatmajorityoftheAmericanIndiansdidnotadvancetoanyhigherformofassociationthanthetribe。Livinginsmalltribes，separatedfromoneanotherbywidetractsbetweentheirfrontiers，weakenedbyincessantwars，theyoccupiedanimmenseterritorywithfewpeople。Hereandtherealliancesbetweenrelatedtribescameintobeingintheemergencyofthemomentandbrokeupwhentheemergencyhadpassed。Butincertaindistrictstribeswhichwereoriginallyrelatedandhadthenbeendispersed，joinedtogetheragaininpermanentfederations，thustakingthefirststeptowardstheformationofnations。IntheUnitedStateswefindthemostdevelopedformofsuchafederationamongtheIroquois。EmigratingfromtheirhomeswestoftheMississippi，wheretheyprobablyformedabranchofthegreatDakotafamily，theysettledafterlongwanderingsinwhatisnowtheStateofNewYork。Theyweredividedintofivetribes：Senecas，Cayugas，Onondagas，OneidasandMohawks。Theysubsistedonfish，game，andtheproductsofacrudehorticulture，andlivedinvillages，whichweregenerallyprotectedbyastockade。Nevermorethantwentythousandstrong，theyhadanumberofgentescommontoallthefivetribes，spokecloselyrelateddialectsofthesamelanguage，andoccupiedacontinuousstretchofterritorywhichwasdividedupamongthefivetribes。Astheyhadnewlyconqueredthisterritory，thesetribeswerenaturallyaccustomedtostandtogetheragainsttheInhabitantstheyhaddrivenout。Fromthisdeveloped，atthebeginningofthefifteenthcenturyatlatest，aregularCeverlastingleague，aswornconfederacy，whichintheconsciousnessofitsnewstrengthimmediatelyassumedanaggressivecharacter，andattheheightofitspower，about1675，conqueredwidestretchesofthesurroundingcountry，eitherexpellingtheinhabitantsormakingthempaytribute。TheIroquoisconfederacyrepresentsthemostadvancedsocialorganizationachievedbyanyIndiansstillatthelowerstageofbarbarismexcluding，therefore，theMexicans，NewMexicansandPeruvians。
Themainprovisionsoftheconfederacywereasfollows：
1。Perpetualfederationofthefiveconsanguineoustribesonthebasisofcompleteequalityandindependenceinallinternalmattersofthetribe。Thisbondofkinrepresentedtherealbasisoftheconfederacy。
Ofthefivetribes，threewereknownasfathertribesandwerebrothertribestooneanother。theothertwowereknownassontribes，andwerelikewisebrothertribestooneanother。Threegentes，theoldest，stillhadtheirlivingrepresentativesinallfivetribes，andanotherthreeinthreetribes。themembersofeachofthesegenteswereallbrothersofoneanotherthroughoutallthefivetribes。Theircommonlanguage，inwhichtherewereonlyvariationsofdialect，wastheexpressionandtheproofoftheircommondescent。
2。Theorganoftheconfederacywasfederalcounciloffiftysachems，allequalinrankandauthority。thedecisionsofthiscouncilwerefinalinallmattersrelatingtotheconfederacy。
3。Thefiftysachemsweredistributedamongthetribesandgentesatthefoundationoftheconfederacytoholdthenewofficesspeciallycreatedforfederalpurposes。Theywereelectedbytherespectivegenteswheneveravacancyoccurredandcouldbedeposedbythegentesatanytime。buttherightofinvestingthemwiththeirofficebelongedtothefederalcouncil。
4。Thesefederalsachemswerealsosachemsintheirrespectivetribes，andhadaseatandavoteinthetribalcouncil。
5。Alldecisionsofthefederalcouncilhadtobeunanimous。
6。Votingwasbytribes，sothatforadecisiontobevalideverytribeandallmembersofthecouncilineverytribehadtosignifytheiragreement。
7。Eachofthefivetribalcouncilscouldconvenethefederalcouncil，butitcouldnotconveneitself。
8。Themeetingsofthecouncilwereheldinthepresenceoftheassembledpeople。everyIroquoiscouldspeak。thecouncilalonedecided。
9。Theconfederacyhadnoofficialheadorchiefexecutiveofficer。
10。Ontheotherhand，thecouncilhadtwoprincipalwar-chiefs，withequalpowersandequalauthoritythetwokingsoftheSpartans，thetwoconsulsinRome。
*
ThatwasthewholepublicconstitutionunderwhichtheIroquoislivedforoverfourhundredyearsandarestilllivingtoday。Ihavedescribeditfully，followingMorgan，becauseherewehavetheopportunityofstudyingtheorganizationofasocietywhichstillhasnostate。Thestatepresupposesaspecialpublicpowerseparatedfromthebodyofthepeople，andMaurer，whowithatrueinstinctrecognizesthattheconstitutionoftheGermanmarkisapurelysocialinstitution，differingessentiallyfromthestate，thoughlaterprovidingagreatpartofitsbasis，consequentlyinvestigatesinallhiswritingsthegradualgrowthofthepublicpoweroutof，andsidebysidewith，theprimitiveconstitutionsofmarks，villages，homesteads，andtowns。AmongtheNorthAmericanIndiansweseehowanoriginallyhomogeneoustribegraduallyspreadsoverahugecontinent。howthroughdivisiontribesbecomenations，entiregroupsoftribes。howthelanguageschangeuntiltheynotonlybecomeunintelligibletoothertribes，butalsolosealmosteverytraceoftheiroriginalidentity。
howatthesametimewithinthetribeseachgenssplitsupintoseveralgentes，howtheoldmothergentesarepreservedasphratries，whilethenamesoftheseoldestgentesneverthelessremainthesameinwidelydistanttribesthathavelongbeenseparated-theWolfandtheBeararestillgentilenamesamongamajorityofallIndiantribes。Andtheconstitutiondescribedaboveappliesinthemaintothemall，exceptthatmanyofthemneveradvancedasfarastheconfederacyofrelatedtribes。
Butoncethegensisgivenasthesocialunit，wealsoseehowthewholeconstitutionofgentes，phratries，andtribesisalmostnecessarilyboundtodevelopfromthisunit，becausethedevelopmentisnatural。Gens，phratry，andtribeareallgroupsofdifferentdegreesofconsanguinity，eachself-containedandorderingitsownaffairs，buteachsupplementingtheother。Andtheaffairswhichfallwithintheirspherecompriseallthepublicaffairsofbarbariansofthelowerstage。Whenwefindapeoplewiththegensastheirsocialunit，wemaythereforealsolookforanorganizationofthetribesimilartothatheredescribed。andwhenthereareadequatesources，asinthecaseoftheGreeksandtheRomans，weshallnotonlyfindit，butweshallalsobeabletoconvinceourselvesthatwherethesourcesfailus，comparisonwiththeAmericansocialconstitutionhelpsusoverthemostdifficultdoubtsandriddles。
Andawonderfulconstitutionitis，thisgentileconstitution，inallitschildlikesimplicity！Nosoldiers，nogendarmesorpolice，nonobles，kings，regents，prefects，orjudges，noprisons，nolawsuits-andeverythingtakesitsorderlycourse。Allquarrelsanddisputesaresettledbythewholeofthecommunityaffected，bythegensorthetribe，orbythegentesamongthemselves。onlyasanextremeandexceptionalmeasureisbloodrevengethreatened-andourcapitalpunishmentisnothingbutbloodrevengeinacivilizedform，withalltheadvantagesanddrawbacksofcivilization。Althoughthereweremanymorematterstobesettledincommonthantoday-thehouseholdismaintainedbyanumberoffamiliesincommon，andiscommunistic，thelandbelongstothetribe，onlythesmallgardensareallottedprovisionallytothehouseholds——yetthereisnoneedforevenatraceofourcomplicatedadministrativeapparatuswithallitsramifications。Thedecisionsaretakenbythoseconcerned，andinmostcaseseverythinghasbeenalreadysettledbythecustomofcenturies。
Therecannotbeanypoororneedy-thecommunalhouseholdandthegensknowtheirresponsibilitiestowardstheold，thesick，andthosedisabledinwar。Allareequalandfree-thewomenincluded。Thereisnoplaceyetforslaves，nor，asarule，forthesubjugationofothertribes。When，abouttheyear1651，theIroquoishadconqueredtheEriesandtheNeutralNation，theyofferedtoacceptthemintotheconfederacyonequalterms。itwasonlyafterthedefeatedtribeshadrefusedthattheyweredrivenfromtheirterritory。AndwhatmenandwomensuchasocietybreedsisprovedbytheadmirationinspiredinallwhitepeoplewhohavecomeintocontactwithunspoiledIndians，bythepersonaldignity，uprightness，strengthofcharacter，andcourageofthesebarbarians。
WehaveseenexamplesofthiscouragequiterecentlyinAfrica。TheZulusafewyearsagoandtheNubiansafewmonthsago——bothofthemtribesinwhichgentileinstitutionshavenotyetdiedout——didwhatnoEuropeanarmycando。Armedonlywithlancesandspears，withoutfirearms，underahailofbulletsfromthebreech-loadersoftheEnglishinfantry-acknowledgedthebestintheworldatfightingincloseorder——theyadvancedrightuptothebayonetsandmorethanoncethrewthelinesintodisorderandevenbrokethem，inspiteoftheenormousinequalityofweaponsandinspiteofthefactthattheyhavenomilitaryserviceandknownothingofdrill。TheirpowersofenduranceandperformanceareshownbythecomplaintoftheEnglishthataKaffirtravelsfartherandfasterintwenty-fourhoursthanahorse。Hissmallestmusclestandsouthardandfirmlikewhipcord，saysanEnglishpainter。
Thatiswhatmenandsocietywerebeforethedivisionintoclasses。
Andwhenwecomparetheirpositionwiththatoftheoverwhelmingmajorityofcivilizedmentoday，anenormousgulfseparatesthepresent-dayproletarianandsmallpeasantfromthefreememberoftheoldgentilesociety。
Thatistheoneside。Butwemustnotforgetthatthisorganizationwasdoomed。Itdidnotgobeyondthetribe。Theconfederacyoftribesalreadymarksthebeginningofitscollapse，aswillsoonbeapparent，andwasalreadyapparentintheattemptsatsubjugationbytheIroquois。Outsidethetribewasoutsidethelaw。Wherevertherewasnotanexplicittreatyofpeace，tribewasatwarwithtribe，andwarswerewagedwiththecrueltywhichdistinguishesmanfromotheranimals，andwhichwasonlymitigatedlaterbyself-interest。Thegentileconstitutioninitsbestdays，aswesawitinAmerica，presupposedanextremelyundevelopedstateofproductionandthereforeanextremelysparsepopulationoverawidearea。Man’sattitudetonaturewasthereforeoneofalmostcompletesubjectiontoastrangeincomprehensiblepower，asisreflectedinhischildishreligiousconceptions。Manwasboundedbyhistribe，bothinrelationtostrangersfromoutsidethetribeandtohimself。thetribe，thegens，andtheirinstitutionsweresacredandinviolable，ahigherpowerestablishedbynature，towhichtheindividualsubjectedhimselfunconditionallyinfeeling，thought，andaction。Howeverimpressivethepeopleofthisepochappeartous，theyarecompletelyundifferentiatedfromoneanother。asMarxsays，theyarestillattachedtothenavelstringoftheprimitivecommunity。[5]Thepowerofthisprimitivecommunityhadtobebroken，anditwasbroken。Butitwasbrokenbyinfluenceswhichfromtheverystartappearasadegradation，afallfromthesimplemoralgreatnessoftheoldgentilesociety。Thelowestinterests——basegreed，brutalappetites，sordidavarice，selfishrobberyofthecommonwealth——inauguratethenew，civilized，classsociety。Itisbythevilestmeans——theft，violence，fraud，treason——thattheoldclasslessgentilesocietyisunderminedandoverthrown。Andthenewsocietyitself，duringallthetwoandahalfthousandyearsofitsexistence，hasneverbeenanythingelsebutthedevelopmentofthesmallminorityattheexpenseofthegreatexploitedandoppressedmajority。todayitissomorethaneverbefore。
NOTES
[1]SystemsofConsanguinityandAffinityoftheHumanFamily，SmithsonianPublications，1871-Ed。
[2]EngelsrefersheretoGrimm’slawoftheshiftingofconsonantsintheIndo-Europeanlanguages-Ed。
[3]Morgan，AncientSociety，pp。85-86-Ed。
[4]Ibid。，p。117-Ed。
[5]Thoseancientsocialorganismsofproductionare，ascomparedwithbourgeoissociety，extremelysimpleandtransparent。Buttheyarefoundedeitherontheimmaturedevelopmentofmanindividually，whohasnotyetseveredtheumbilicalcordthatunifiedhimwithhisfellowmeninaprimitivetribalcommunity，orupondirectrelationsofdominationandsubjection——KarlMarxCapitalVol。I，p。51，NewYork。Ed。
THEORIGINOF
THEFAMILY，PRIVATEPROPERTY，ANDTHESTATE
byFREDERICKENGELS
CHAPTERIV
THEGREEKGENS
FROMprehistorictimesGreeksandPelasgiansalike，andotherpeoplesofkindredstock，hadbeenorganizedinthesameorganicseriesastheAmericans：gens，phratry，tribe，confederacyoftribes。Thephratrymightbeabsent，asamongtheDorians，andtheconfederacyoftribeswasnotnecessarilyfullydevelopedeverywhereasyet。butineverycasethegenswastheunit。Atthetimeoftheirentryintohistory，theGreeksareonthethresholdofcivilization。betweenthemandtheAmericantribes，ofwhomwespokeabove，liealmosttwoentiregreatperiodsofdevelopment，bywhichtheGreeksoftheheroicageareaheadoftheIroquois。ThegensoftheGreeksisthereforenolongerthearchaicgensoftheIroquois。theimpressofgroupmarriageisbeginningtobeagooddealblurred。Mother-righthasgivenwaytofather-right。increasingprivatewealthhasthusmadeitsfirstbreachinthegentileconstitution。Asecondbreachfollowednaturallyfromthefirst。Aftertheintroductionoffather-rightthepropertyofarichheiresswouldhavepassedtoherhusbandandthusintoanothergensonhermarriage，butthefoundationofallgentilelawwasnowviolatedandinsuchacasethegirlwasnotonlypermittedbutorderedtomarrywithinthegens，inorderthatherpropertyshouldberetainedforthegens。
AccordingtoGrote’sHistoryofGreece，theAtheniangens，inparticular，washeldtogetherbythefollowinginstitutionsandcustoms：
1。Commonreligiousrites，andtheexclusiveprivilegeofpriesthoodinhonorofaparticulargod，thesupposedancestralfatherofthegens，whointhisattributewasdesignatedbyaspecialsurname。
2。Acommonburialplacecf。Demosthenes’Eubulides。
3。Mutualrightofinheritance。
4。Mutualobligationsofhelp，protection，andassistanceincaseofviolence。
5。Mutualrightandobligationtomarrywithinthegensincertaincases，especiallyfororphangirlsandheiresses。
6。Possession，atleastinsomecases，ofcommonproperty，withaspecialarchonheadmanorpresidentandtreasurer。
Next，severalgenteswereunitedinthephratry，butlessclosely。
thoughherealsowefindmutualrightsandobligationsofasimilarkind，particularlythecommoncelebrationofcertainreligiousceremoniesandtherighttoavengethedeathofaphrator。Similarly，allthephratriesofatribeheldregularlyrecurringreligiousfestivalsincommon，atwhichaleaderofthetribephylobasileus，electedfromthenobilityEupatridai，officiated。
ThusfarGrote。AndMarxadds：IntheGreekgens，thesavagee。g。
Iroquoisshowsthroughunmistakably。Hebecomesstillmoreunmistakablewhenweinvestigatefurther。
FortheGreekgenshasalsothefollowingcharacteristics：
7。Descentinthemaleline。
8。Prohibitionofmarriagewithinthegensexceptinthecaseofheiresses。Thisexception，anditsformulationasanordinance，provetheoldruletobevalid。Thisisfurthersubstantiatedbytheuniversallyacceptedprinciplethatathermarriagethewomanrenouncedthereligiousritesofhergensandwentovertothoseofherhusband，beingalsoinscribedinhisphratry。ThiscustomandafamouspassageinDiccarchusbothshowthatmarriageoutsidethegenswastherule，andBeckerinChariclesdirectlyassumesthatnobodymightmarrywithinhisowngens。
9。Therightofadoptionintothegens。Thiswasexercisedthroughadoptionintothefamily，butrequiredpublicformalitiesandwasexceptional。
10。Therighttoelectchieftainsandtodeposethem。Weknowthateverygenshaditsarchon。butitisnowherestatedthattheofficewashereditaryincertainfamilies。Untiltheendofbarbarismtheprobabilityisalwaysagainststrictheredity，whichisquiteincompatiblewithconditionsinwhichrichandpoorhadcompletelyequalrightswithinthegens。
NotonlyGrote，butalsoNiebuhr，Mommsenandalltheotherhistoriansofclassicalantiquity，havecometogriefoverthegens。Thoughtheycorrectlynotedmanyofitscharacteristics，theyalwaystookittobeagroupoffamilies，thusmakingitimpossibleforthemselvestounderstandthenatureandoriginofthegens。Underthegentileconstitution，thefamilywasneveranorganizationalunit，andcouldnotbeso，formanandwifenecessarilybelongedtotwodifferentgentes。Thewholegenswasincorporatedwithinthephratry，andthewholephratrywithinthetribe。butthefamilybelongedhalftothegensofthemanandhalftothegensofthewoman。Inpubliclawthestatealsodoesnotrecognizethefamily。uptothisday，thefamilyonlyexistsforprivatelaw。Andyetallourhistorieshavehithertostartedfromtheabsurdassumption，which，sincetheeighteenthcenturyinparticular，hasbecomeinviolable，thatthemonogamoussinglefamily，whichishardlyolderthancivilization，isthecorearoundwhichsocietyandstatehavegraduallycrystallized。
Mr。Grotewillalsopleasenote[Marxthrowsin]thatthoughtheGreeksderivetheirgentesfrommythology，thegentesareolderthanthemythologywhich_theythemselves_createdwithallitsgodsanddemigods。
MorganpreferstoquoteGrotebecauseheisnotonlyanimpressivebutalsoatrustworthywitness。GrotegoesontosaythateveryAtheniangenshadanamederivedfromitssupposedancestor。thatitwasthegeneralcustombeforeSolon，andevenafterSolon，intheabsenceofawill，forthepropertyofadeceasedpersontopasstothemembersofhisgensgennetai，andthatinthecaseofamurderitwasthelightandtheduty，firstoftherelativesofthemurderedman，thenofthemembersofhisgens，andlastlyofhisphratry，toprosecutethecriminalbeforethetribunals：AllthatwehearofthemostancientAthenianlawsisbaseduponthegentileandphratricdivisions。
Grote。
Thedescentofthegentesfromcommonancestorshascausedthepedanticphilistines，asMarxcallsthem，alotofbrain-racking。Astheyofcoursedeclarethecommonancestorstobepuremyths，theyareatanutterlosstoexplainhowthegensoriginatedoutofanumberofseparateandoriginallyquiteunrelatedfamilies。yettheyhavetoperformthisfeatinordertoexplainhowthegentesexistatall。Sotheyargueincircles，withfloodsofwords，nevergettinganyfurtherthanthestatement：theancestraltreeisafairytale，butthegensisareality。AndfinallyGrotedeclaresinterpolationsbyMarx：
Wehearofthisgenealogybutrarely，becauseitisonlybroughtbeforethepublicincertaincasespre-eminentandvenerable。Butthehumblergenteshadtheircommonrites[thisisstrange，Mr。
Grote！]，andcommonsuperhumanancestorandgenealogy，aswellasthemorecelebrated[thisismoststrange，Mr。Grote，among_humbler_gentes！]：theschemeandidealbasis[mygoodsir，not_ideal_，butcarnal，germanice_fleishlich_！]wasthesameinall。[1]
MarxsummarizesMorgan’sreplytothisasfollows：
ThesystemofconsanguinitycorrespondingtotheoriginalformofthegensandtheGreeks，likeothermortals，oncepossessedsuchagens-preservedtheknowledgeofthemutualrelationsbetweenall[missingquote]
Thephratryhasfurthertherightandthedutyofprosecutingforblood-guiltincurredagainstaphrator。henceinearliertimesitalsohadtheobligationofbloodrevenge。Further，ithadcommonshrinesandfestivals。infacttheelaborationofthewholeGreekmythologyoutofthetraditionaloldAryannature-cultwasessentiallyconditionedbythephratriesandgentes，andtookplacewithinthem。Thephratryalsohadachiefthephratriarchosand，accordingtodeCoulanges，assemblies。Itcouldpassbindingresolutions，andactasajudicialandadministrativebody。Eventhelaterstate，whileitignoredthegens，leftcertainpublicofficesinthehandsofthephratry。
Severalrelatedphratriesformatribe。InAtticatherewerefourtribes，eachconsistingofthreephratries，eachphratrynumberingthirtygentes。Sucharoundedsymmetryofgroupspresupposesconscious，purposefulinterferencewiththenaturallydevelopedorder。
Astohow，when，andwhythisoccurred，。Greekhistoryissilent。thehistoricalmemoryoftheGreeksonlywentbacktotheheroicage。
AstheGreekswerecrowdedtogetherinarelativelysmallterritory，differencesofdialectwerelessdevelopedthaninthewideAmericanforests。yetinGreecealsoitwasonlytribesofthesamemaindialectthatunitedinalargerorganization，andevenAttica，smallasitwas，hadadialectofitsown，whichlater，throughitsgeneraluseasthelanguageofprose，becamethedominantdialect。
IntheHomericpoemswefindmostoftheGreektribesalreadyunitedintosmallnations，withinwhich，however，gentes，phratries，andtribesretainedtheirfullindependence。Theyalreadylivedintownsfortifiedwithwalls。thepopulationincreasedwiththeincreaseoftheherds，theextensionofagricultureandthebeginningsofhandicraft。
Thedifferencesinwealththusbecamemorepronounced，andwiththemthearistocraticelementwithintheoldprimitivedemocracy。Thevarioussmallnationswagedincessantwarsforthepossessionofthebestlandanddoubtlessalsoforbooty。theuseofprisonersofwarasslaveswasalreadyarecognizedinstitution。
Theconstitutionofthesetribesandsmallnationswasasfollows：
1。Thepermanentauthoritywasthecouncilboule，probablycomposedoriginallyofallthechiefsofthegentes。later，whentheirnumberbecametoolarge，ofaselection，whosechoiceprovidedanopportunityofextendingandstrengtheningthearistocraticelement。
Dionysiusactuallyspeaksofthecouncilintheheroicageascomposedofnobleskratistoi。Theultimatedecisioninimportantmattersrestedwiththecouncil。ThusinAEschylusthecouncilofThebesmakeswhatisinthecircumstancesthevitaldecisiontogiveEteoclesanhonorableburial，buttothrowoutthecorpseofPolynicestobedevouredbydogs。Whenthestatewasestablished，thiscouncilwasmergedintothesenate。
2。Theassemblyofthepeopleagora。WesawamongtheIroquoishowthepeople，menandwomen，stoodroundthecouncilwhenitwasholdingitsmeetings，interveninginanorderlymannerinitsdeliberationsandthusinfluencingitsdecisions。AmongtheHomericGreeks，thisUmstandstandinground，touseanoldGermanlegalexpression，hadalreadydevelopedintoaregularassemblyofthepeople，aswasalsothecaseamongtheGermansinprimitivetimes。Itwasconvenedbythecounciltodecideimportantquestions。everymanbadtherighttospeak。ThedecisionwasgivenbyashowofhandsAEschylus，TheSuppliantsorbyacclamation。Thedecisionoftheassemblywassupremeandfinal，for，saysSchomann，in_GriechischeAltertumer_，ifthematterwasonerequiringtheco-operationofthepeopleforitsexecution，Homerdoesnotindicateanymeansbywhichthepeoplecouldbeforcedtoco-operateagainsttheirwill。
Foratthistime，wheneveryadultmalememberofthetribewasawarrior，therewasasyetnopublicpowerseparatefromthepeoplewhichcouldhavebeenusedagainstthepeople。Primitivedemocracywasstillinitsfullstrength，anditisinrelationtothatfactthatthepowerandthepositionbothofthecouncilandofthebasileusmustfirstbejudged。
3Theleaderofthearmybasileus。Marxmakesthefollowingcomment：
Europeanscholars，bornlackeysmostofthem，makethe_basileus_
intoamonarchinthemodernsense。Morgan，theYankeerepublican，protests。Veryironically，buttruly，hesaysoftheoily-tonguedGladstoneandhisJuventusMundi：Mr。Gladstone，whopresentstohisreaderstheGrecianchiefsoftheheroicageaskingsandprinces，withthesuperaddedqualitiesofgentlemen，isforcedtoadmitthat’onthewholeweseemtohavethecustomorlawofprimogenituresufficiently，butnotoversharplydefined。’[2]
Mr。Gladstonewillprobablyagreethatsuchanambiguouslawofprimogenituremaybesufficiently，butnotoversharplydefinedasbeingjustasgoodasnoneatall。
InwhatsensetheofficesofsachemandchieftainwerehereditaryamongtheIroquoisandotherIndians，wehavealreadyseen。Allofficeswereelective，generallywithinagens，andtothatextenthereditarytothegens。Inthecourseoftime，preferencewhenfillingvacancieswasgiventothenearestgentilerelation-brotherorsister’sson-unlesstherewerereasonsforpassinghimover。ThefactthatamongtheGreeks，underfather-right，theofficeofbasileusgenerallypassedtotheson，oroneofthesons，onlyprovesthattheprobabilitieswereinfavorofthesonssucceedingtotheofficebypopularelection。itisnoproofatalloflegalhereditarysuccessionwithoutpopularelection。AllthatwehavehereisthefirstbeginningsamongtheIroquoisandGreeksofdistinctnoblefamilieswithinthegentesand，inthecaseoftheGreeks，thefirstbeginningsalsoofafuturehereditaryleadershipormonarchy。Theprobabilityis，therefore，thatamongtheGreeksthebasileushadeithertobeelectedbythepeopleoratleastconfirmedinhisofficebytherecognizedorgansofthepeople，thecounciloragora，aswasthecasewiththeRomanking
rex。
IntheIliad，Agamemnon，therulerofmen，doesnotappearasthesupremekingoftheGreeks，butassupremecommanderofafederalarmybeforeabesiegedtown。ItistothissupremacyofcommandthatOdysseus，afterdisputeshadbrokenoutamongtheGreeks，refersinafamouspassage：Evilistheruleofmany。letonebecommander，etc。
Thefavoritelineaboutthescepterisalateraddition。
Odysseusisherenotgivingalectureonaformofgovernment，butdemandingobediencetothesupremecommanderinwar。SincetheyareappearingbeforeTroyonlyasanarmy，theproceedingsintheagorasecuretotheGreeksallnecessarydemocracy。WhenAchillesspeaksofpresents——thatis，thedivisionofthebooty——healwaysleavesthedivision，nottoAgamemnonoranyotherbasileus，buttothesonsoftheAchacans，thatis，thepeople。
SuchepithetsasdescendedfromZeus，nourishedbyZeus，provenothing，foreverygensisdescendedfromagod，thatoftheleaderofthetribebeingalreadydescendedfromasuperiorgod，inthiscaseZeus。Eventhosewithoutpersonalfreedom，suchastheswineherdEumaecusandothers，aredivinedioiandtheioi，andthattoointheOdyssey，whichismuchlaterthantheIliad。
andagainintheOdysseythenameHerosisgiventotheheraldMuliusaswellastotheblindbardDemodocus。Since，inshort，councilandassemblyofthepeoplefunctiontogetherwiththebasileus，thewordbasileia，whichGreekwritersemploytodenotetheso-calledHomerickingshipchiefcommandinthearmybeingtheprincipalcharacteristicoftheoffice，onlymeans——
militarydemocracy。Marx。
Inadditiontohismilitaryfunctions，thebasileusalsoheldthoseofpriestandjudge，thelatternotclearlydefined，theformerexercisedinhiscapacityassupremerepresentativeofthetribeorconfederacyoftribes。Thereisneveranymentionofciviladministrativepowers。
heseems，however，tobeamemberofthecouncilexofficio。Itisthereforequitecorrectetymologicallytotranslatebasileusasking，sincekingkuningisderivedfromkuni，kunne，andmeansheadofagens。ButtheoldGreekbasileusdoesnotcorrespondinanywaytothepresentmeaningofthewordking。Thucydidesexpresslyreferstotheoldbasileiaaspatrike，i。e。derivedfromgentes，andsaysithadstrictlydefined，andthereforelimited，functions。AndAristotlesaysthatthebasileiaoftheheroicagewasaleadershipoverfreemenandthatthebasileuswasmilitaryleader，judgeandhighpriest。hethushadnogovernmentalpowerinthelatersense。[3]
ThusintheGreekconstitutionoftheheroicageweseetheoldgentileorderasstillalivingforce。Butwealsoseethebeginningsofitsdisintegration：father-right，withtransmissionofthepropertytothechildren，bywhichaccumulationofwealthwithinthefamilywasfavoredandthefamilyitselfbecameapowerasagainstthegens。reactionoftheinequalityofwealthontheconstitutionbytheformationofthefirstrudimentsofhereditarynobilityandmonarchy。slavery，atfirstonlyofprisonersofwar，butalreadypreparingthewayfortheenslavementoffellow-membersofthetribeandevenofthegens。theoldwarsbetweentribeandtribealreadydegeneratingintosystematicpillagebylandandseafortheacquisitionofcattle，slavesandtreasure，andbecomingaregularsourceofwealth。inshort，richespraisedandrespectedasthehighestgoodandtheoldgentileordermisusedtojustifytheviolentseizureofriches。Onlyonethingwaswanting：aninstitutionwhichnotonlysecuredthenewlyacquiredrichesofindividualsagainstthecommunistictraditionsofthegentileorder，whichnotonlysanctifiedtheprivatepropertyformerlysolittlevalued，anddeclaredthissanctificationtobethehighestpurposeofallhumansociety。butaninstitutionwhichsetthesealofgeneralsocialrecognitiononeachnewmethodofacquiringpropertyandthusamassingwealthatcontinuallyincreasingspeed。aninstitutionwhichperpetuated，notonlythisgrowingcleavageofsocietyintoclasses，butalsotherightofthepossessingclasstoexploitthenon-possessing，andtheruleoftheformeroverthelatter。
Andthisinstitutioncame。Thestatewasinvented。
NOTES
[1]QuotedbyMorgan，op。cit。，p。239——Ed。
[2]Morgan，op。cit。，p。255m-Ed。
[3]LiketheGreekbasileus，soalsotheAztecmilitarychiefhasbeenmadeouttobeamodernprince。ThereportsoftheSpaniards，whichwereatfirstmisinterpretationsandexaggerations，andlateractuallies，weresubmittedforthefirsttimetohistoricalcriticismbyMorgan。HeprovesthattheMexicanswereatthemiddlestageofbarbarism，thoughmoreadvancedthantheNewMexicanPuebloIndians，andthattheirconstitution，sofarasitcanberecognizedinthedistortedreports，correspondedtothisstage：aconfederacyofthreetribes，whichhadsubjugatedanumberofothertribesandexactedtributefromthem，andwhichwasgovernedbyafederalcouncilandafederalmilitaryleader，outofwhomtheSpaniardsmadeanemperor。
THEORIGINOF
THEFAMILY，PRIVATEPROPERTY，ANDTHESTATE
byFREDERICKENGELS
V。
THERISEOFTHEATHENIANSTATE
HOWthestatedeveloped，howtheorgansofthegentileconstitutionwerepartlytransformedinthisdevelopment，partlypushedasidebytheintroductionofneworgans，andatlastsupersededentirelybyrealstateauthorities，whilethetruepeopleinarms，organizedforitsself-defenseinitsgentes，phratries，andtribes，wasreplacedbyanarmedpublicforceintheserviceofthesestateauthoritiesandthereforeattheircommandforusealsoagainstthepeople——thisprocess，atleastinitsfirststages，canbefollowednowherebetterthaninancientAthens。ThechangesinformhavebeenoutlinedbyMorgan，buttheireconomiccontentandcausemustlargelybeaddedbymyself。
IntheheroicagethefourtribesoftheAthenianswerestillsettledinAtticainseparateterritories。eventhetwelvephratriescomposingthemseemstilltohavehaddistinctseatsinthetwelvetownsofCecrops。Theconstitutionwasthatoftheheroicage：assemblyofthepeople，councilofthepeople，basileus。Asfaraswrittenhistorytakesusback，wefindthelandalreadydividedupandprivatelyowned，whichisinaccordancewiththerelativelyadvancedcommodityproductionandthecorrespondingtradeincommoditiesdevelopedtowardstheendoftheupperstageofbarbarism。Inadditiontograin，wineandoilwereproduced。toacontinuallyincreasingextent，theseatradeintheAgeanwascapturedfromthePhoenicians，andmostofitpassedintoAthenianhands。Throughthesaleandpurchaseofland，andtheprogressivedivisionoflaborbetweenagricultureandhandicraft，trade，andshipping，itwasinevitablethatthemembersofthedifferentgentes，phratries，andtribesverysoonbecameintermixed，andthatintothedistrictsofthephratryandtribemovedinhabitants，who，althoughfellowcountrymen，didnotbelongtothesebodiesandwerethereforestrangersintheirownplaceofdomicile。Forwhentimeswerequiet，eachtribeandeachphratryadministereditsownaffairswithoutsendingtoAthenstoconsultthecouncilofthepeopleorthebasileus。Butanyonenotamemberofthephratryortribewas，ofcourse，excludedfromtakinganypartinthisadministration，eventhoughlivinginthedistrict。
Thesmoothfunctioningoftheorgansofthegentileconstitutionwasthusthrownsomuchoutofgearthatevenintheheroicageremedieshadtobefound。TheconstitutionascribedtoTheseuswasintroduced。
TheprincipalchangewhichitmadewastosetupacentralauthorityinAthens——thatis，partoftheaffairshithertoadministeredbythetribesindependentlyweredeclaredcommonaffairsandentrustedtothecommoncouncilsittinginAthens。Intakingthisstep，theAthenianswentfurtherthananynativepeopleofAmericahadeverdone：insteadofneighboringtribesformingasimpleconfederacy，theyfusedtogetherintoonesinglenation。HencearoseacommonAtheniancivillaw，whichstoodabovethelegalcustomsofthetribesandgentes。
theAtheniancitizen，assuch，acquireddefiniterightsandnewprotectioninlawevenonterritorywhichwasnotthatofhistribe。
Thefirststephadbeentakentowardsunderminingthegentileconstitution。forthiswasthefirststeptothelateradmissionofcitizenswhodidnotbelongtoanytribeinallAttica，butwere，andremained，completelyoutsidetheAtheniangentileconstitution。ByasecondmeasureascribedtoTheseus，theentirepeople，regardlessofgens，phratryortribe，wasdividedintothreeclasses：eupatridai，ornobles，geomoroi，orfarmers，anddemiourgoi，orartisans，andtherighttoholdofficewasvestedexclusivelyinthenobility。Apartfromthetenureofofficesbythenobility，thisdivisionremainedinoperative，asitdidnotcreateanyotherlegaldistinctionsbetweentheclasses。Itis，however，importantbecauseitrevealsthenewsocialelementswhichhadbeendevelopingunobserved。Itshowsthatthecustomaryappointmentofmembersofcertainfamiliestotheofficesofthegenshadalreadygrownintoanalmostuncontestedrightofthesefamiliestooffice。itshowsthatthesefamilies，alreadypowerfulthroughtheirwealth，werebeginningtoformgroupingsoutsidetheirgentesasaseparate，privilegedclass，andthatthestatenowtakingformsanctionedthispresumption。Itshowsfurtherthatthedivisionoflaborbetweenpeasantsandartisanswasnowfirmlyenoughestablishedinitssocialimportancetochallengetheoldgroupingofgentesandtribes。And，finally，itproclaimstheirreconcilableoppositionbetweengentilesocietyandthestate。thefirstattemptatformingastateconsistsinbreakingupthegentesbydividingtheirmembersintothosewithprivilegesandthosewithnone，andbyfurtherseparatingthelatterintotwoproductiveclassesandthussettingthemoneagainsttheother。
ThefurtherpoliticalhistoryofAthensuptothetimeofSolonisonlyimperfectlyknown。Theofficeofbasileusfellintodisuse。thepositionsattheheadofthestatewereoccupiedbyarchonselectedfromthenobility。Thepowerofthenobilitycontinuouslyincreased，untilabouttheyear600B。C。itbecameinsupportable。Andtheprincipalmeansforsuppressingthecommonlibertywere——moneyandusury。ThenobilityhadtheirchiefseatinandaroundAthens，whosemaritimetrade，withoccasionalpiracystillthrownin，enrichedthemandconcentratedintheirhandsthewealthexistingintheformofmoney。Fromherethegrowingmoneyeconomypenetratedlikecorrosiveacidintotheoldtraditionallifeoftheruralcommunitiesfoundedonnaturaleconomy。Thegentileconstitutionisabsolutelyirreconcilablewithmoneyeconomy。theruinoftheAtticsmallfarmerscoincidedwiththelooseningoftheoldgentilebondswhichembracedandprotectedthem。Thedebtor’sbondandthelienonpropertyforalreadytheAthenianshadinventedthemortgagealsorespectedneithergensnorphratry，whiletheoldgentileconstitution，foritspart，knewneithermoneynoradvancesofmoneynordebtsinmoney。Hencethemoneyruleofthearistocracynowinfullfloodofexpansionalsocreatedanewcustomarylawtosecurethecreditoragainstthedebtorandtosanctiontheexploitationofthesmallpeasantbythepossessorofmoney。AllthefieldsofAtticawerethickwithmortgagecolumnsbearinginscriptionsstatingthatthelandonwhichtheystoodwasmortgagedtosuchandsuchforsoandsomuch。Thefieldsnotsomarkedhadforthemostpartalreadybeensoldonaccountofunpaidmortgagesorinterest，andhadpassedintotheownershipofthenobleusurer。thepeasantcouldcounthimselfluckyifhewasallowedtoremainonthelandasatenantandliveonone-sixthoftheproduceofhislabor，whilehepaidfive-sixthstohisnewmasterasrent。Andthatwasnotall。Ifthesaleofthelanddidnotcoverthedebt，orifthedebthadbeencontractedwithoutanysecurity，thedebtor，inordertomeethiscreditor’sclaims，hadtosellhischildrenintoslaveryabroad。
Childrensoldbytheirfather——suchwasthefirstfruitoffather-rightandmonogamy！Andiftheblood-suckerwasstillnotsatisfied，hecouldsellthedebtorhimselfasaslave。ThusthepleasantdawnofcivilizationbeganfortheAthenianpeople。
Formerly，whentheconditionsofthepeoplestillcorrespondedtothegentileconstitution，suchanupheavalwasimpossible。nowithadhappened——nobodyknewhow。LetusgobackforamomenttoourIroquois，amongstwhomthesituationnowconfrontingtheAthenians，withouttheirowndoing，sotospeak，andcertainlyagainsttheirwill，wasinconceivable。Theirmodeofproducingthenecessitiesoflife，unvaryingfromyeartoyear，couldnevergeneratesuchconflictsaswereapparentlyforcedontheAtheniansfromwithout。itcouldnevercreateanoppositionofrichandpoor，ofexploitersandexploited。
TheIroquoiswerestillveryfarfromcontrollingnature，butwithinthelimitsimposedonthembynaturalforcestheydidcontroltheirownproduction。Apartfrombadharvestsintheirsmallgardens，theexhaustionofthestocksoffishintheirlakesandriversorofthegameintheirwoods，theyknewwhatresultstheycouldexpect，makingtheirlivingastheydid。Thecertainresultwasalivelihood，plentifulorscanty。butoneresulttherecouldneverbe——socialupheavalsthatnoonehadeverintended，sunderingofthegentilebonds，divisionofgensandtribeintotwoopposingandwarringclasses。Productionwaslimitedintheextreme，but——theproducerscontrolledtheirproduct。Thatwastheimmenseadvantageofbarbarianproduction，whichwaslostwiththecomingofcivilization。toreconquerit，butonthebasisofthegiganticcontrolofnaturenowachievedbymanandofthefreeassociationnowmadepossible，willbethetaskofthenextgenerations。
NotsoamongtheGreeks。Theriseofprivatepropertyinherdsandarticlesofluxuryledtoexchangebetweenindividuals，tothetransformationofproductsintocommodities。Andherelietheseedsofthewholesubsequentupheaval。Whentheproducersnolongerdirectlyconsumedtheirproductthemselves，butletitpassoutoftheirhandsintheactofexchange，theylostcontrolofit。Theynolongerknewwhatbecameofit。thepossibilitywastherethatonedayitwouldbeusedagainsttheproducertoexploitandoppresshim。Forthisreasonnosocietycanpermanentlyretainthemasteryofitsownproductionandthecontroloverthesocialeffectsofitsprocessofproductionunlessitabolishesexchangebetweenindividuals。