Withthedevelopmentofcapitalistproductionduringthemanufacturingperiod，thepublicopinionofEuropehadlostthelastremnantofshameandconscience。Thenationsbraggedcynicallyofeveryinfamythatservedthemasameanstocapitalisticaccumulation。Read，e。g。，thenaïveAnnalsofCommerceoftheworthyA。Anderson。HereitistrumpetedforthasatriumphofEnglishstatecraftthatatthePeaceofUtrecht，EnglandextortedfromtheSpaniardsbytheAsientoTreatytheprivilegeofbeingallowedtoplythenegro—trade，untilthenonlycarriedonbetweenAfricaandtheEnglishWestIndies，betweenAfricaandSpanishAmericaaswell。
EnglandtherebyacquiredtherightofsupplyingSpanishAmericauntil1743
with4，800negroesyearly。Thisthrew，atthesametime，anofficialcloakoverBritishsmuggling。Liverpoolwaxedfatontheslave—trade。Thiswasitsmethodofprimitiveaccumulation。And，eventothepresentday，Liverpool\"respectability\"isthePindaroftheslave—tradewhich？comparetheworkofAikin[1795]alreadyquoted？\"hascoincidedwiththatspiritofboldadventurewhichhascharacterisedthetradeofLiverpoolandrapidlycarriedittoitspresentstateofprosperity;hasoccasionedvastemploymentforshippingandsailors，andgreatlyaugmentedthedemandforthemanufacturesofthecountry\"（p。339）。Liverpoolemployedintheslave—trade，in1730，15ships;in1751，53;in1760，74;in1770，96;andin1792，132。
Whilstthecottonindustryintroducedchild—slaveryinEngland，itgaveintheUnitedStatesastimulustothetransformationoftheearlier，moreorlesspatriarchalslavery，intoasystemofcommercialexploitation。
Infact，theveiledslaveryofthewage—workersinEuropeneeded，foritspedestal，slaverypureandsimpleinthenewworld。’
Tantaemoliserat，toestablishthe\"eternallawsofNature\"ofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，tocompletetheprocessofseparationbetweenlabourersandconditionsoflabour，totransform，atonepole，thesocialmeansofproductionandsubsistenceintocapital，attheoppositepole，themassofthepopulationintowage—labourers，into\"freelabouringpoor，\"
thatartificialproductofmodernsociety。[13]Ifmoney，AccordingtoAugier，[14]\"comesintotheworldwithacongenitalblood—stainononecheek，\"capitalcomesdrippingfromheadtofoot，fromeverypore，withbloodanddirt。[15]
Footnotes[1]Industrialhereincontradistinctiontoagricultural。Inthe\"categoric\"
sensethefarmerisanindustrialcapitalistasmuchasthemanufacturer。
[2]\"TheNaturalandArtificialRightsofPropertyContrasted。\"Lond。，1832，pp。98—99。Authoroftheanonymouswork:\"Th。Hodgskin。\"
[3]Evenaslateas1794，thesmallcloth—makersofLeedssentadeputationtoParliament，withapetitionforalawtoforbidanymerchantfrombecomingamanufacturer。（Dr。Aikin，l。c。）
[4]WilliamHowitt:\"ColonisationandChristianity:APopularHistoryoftheTreatmentoftheNativesbytheEuropeansinalltheirColonies。\"London，1838，p。9。OnthetreatmentoftheslavesthereisagoodcompilationinCharlesComte，\"TraitédelaLégislation。\"3meéd。
Bruxelles，1837。Thissubjectonemuststudyindetail，toseewhatthebourgeoisiemakesofitselfandofthelabourer，whereveritcan，withoutrestraint，modeltheworldafteritsownimage。
[5]ThomasStamfordRaffles，lateLieut—Gov。ofthatisland:\"TheHistoryofJava，\"Lond。，1817。
[6]Intheyear1866morethanamillionHindusdiedofhungerintheprovinceofOrissaalone。Nevertheless，theattemptwasmadetoenrichtheIndiantreasurybythepriceatwhichthenecessariesoflifeweresoldtothestarvingpeople。
[7]WilliamCobbettremarksthatinEnglandallpublicinstitutionsaredesignated\"royal\";ascompensationforthis，however，thereisthe\"national\"debt。
[8]\"SilesTartaresinondaientI’Europeaujourd’hui，ilfaudraitbiendesaffairespourleurfaireentendrecequec’estqu’unfinancierparminous。\"
Montesquieu，\"Espritdeslois，\"t。iv。，p。33，ed。Londres，1769。
[9]Mirabeau，l。c。，t。vi。，p。101。
[10]Eden，l。c。，Vol。I。，BookII。，Ch。1。，p。421。
[11]JohnFielden，l。c。，pp。5，6。Ontheearlierinfamiesofthefactorysystem，cf。Dr。Aikin（I795），l。c。，p。219。andGisbome:\"EnquiryintotheDutiesofMen，\"1795Vol。II。Whenthesteam—enginetransplantedthefactoriesfromthecountrywaterfallstothemiddleoftowns，the\"abstemious\"surplus—valuemakerfoundthechild—materialreadytohishand，withoutbeingforcedtoseekslavesfromtheworkhouses。WhenSirR。Peel（fatherofthe\"ministerofplausibility\"），broughtinhisbillfortheprotectionofchildren，in1815，FrancisHomer，lumenoftheBillionCommitteeandintimatefriendofRicardo，saidintheHouseofCommons:\"Itisnotorious，thatwithabankrupt’seffects，agang，ifhemightusetheword，ofthesechildrenhadbeenputuptosale，andwereadvertisedpubliclyaspartoftheproperty。
AmostatrociousinstancehadbeenbroughtbeforetheCourtofKing’sBenchtwoyearsbefore，inwhichanumberoftheseboys，apprenticedbyaparishinLondontoonemanufacturer，hadbeentransferredtoanother，andhadbeenfoundbysomebenevolentpersonsinastateofabsolutefamine。Anothercasemorehorriblehadcometohisknowledgewhileona[Parliamentary]
Committee……thatnotmanyyearsago，anagreementhadbeenmadebetweenaLondonparishandaLancashiremanufacturer，bywhichitwasstipulated，thatwithevery20soundchildrenoneidiotshouldbetaken。\"
[12]In1790，therewereintheEnglishWestIndiestenslavesforonefreeman，intheFrenchfourteenforone，intheDutchtwenty—threeforone。
（HenryBrougham:\"AnInquiryintotheColonialPolicyoftheEuropeanPowers。\"
Edin。1803，vol。II。，p。74。）
[13]Thephrase，\"labouringpoor，\"isfoundinEnglishlegislationfromthemomentwhentheclassofwage—labourersbecomesnoticeable。Thistermisusedinopposition，ontheonehand，tothe\"idlepoor，\"beggars，etc。，ontheothertothoselabourers，who，pigeonsnotyetplucked，arestillpossessorsoftheirownmeansoflabour。FromtheStatuteBookitpassedintoPoliticalEconomy，andwashandeddownbyCulpeper，J。Child，etc。，toAdamSmithandEden。Afterthis，onecanjudgeofthegoodfaithofthe\"execrablepoliticalcant—monger，\"EdmundBurke，whenhecalledtheexpression，\"labouringpoor，\"？\"execrablepoliticalcant。\"Thissycophantwho，inthepayoftheEnglisholigarchy，playedtheromanticlaudatortemporisactiagainsttheFrenchRevolution，justas，inthepayoftheNorthAmericanColonies，atthebeginningoftheAmericantroubles，hehadplayedtheLiberalagainsttheEnglisholigarchy，wasanoutandoutvulgarbourgeois。\"ThelawsofcommercearethelawsofNature，andthereforethelawsofGod。\"（E。Burke，l。c。，pp。31，32。）Nowonderthat，truetothelawsofGodandofNature，healwayssoldhimselfinthebestmarket。
AverygoodportraitofthisEdmundBurke，duringhisliberaltime，istobefoundinthewritingsoftheRev。Mr。Tucker。TuckerwasaparsonandaTory，but，fortherest，anhonourablemanandacompetentpoliticaleconomist。Infaceoftheinfamouscowardiceofcharacterthatreignsto—day，andbelievesmostdevoutlyin\"thelawsofcommerce，\"itisourboundendutyagainandagaintobrandtheBurkes，whoonlydifferfromtheirsuccessorsinonething？talent。
[14]MarieAngier:\"DuCréditPublic。\"Paris，1842。
[15]\"CapitalissaidbyaQuarterlyReviewertoflyturbulenceandstrife，andtobetimid，whichisverytrue;butthisisveryincompletelystatingthequestion。Capitaleschewsnoprofit，orverysmallprofit，justasNaturewasformerlysaidtoabhoravacuum。Withadequateprofit，capitalisverybold。Acertain10percent。willensureitsemploymentanywhere;
20percent。certainwillproduceeagerness;50percent。，positiveaudacity;
100percent。willmakeitreadytotrampleonallhumanlaws;300percent。，andthereisnotacrimeatwhichitwillscruple，norariskitwillnotrun，eventothechanceofitsownerbeinghanged。Ifturbulenceandstrifewillbringaprofit，itwillfreelyencourageboth。Smugglingandtheslave—tradehaveamplyprovedallthatisherestated。\"（T。J。
Dunning，l。c。，pp。35，36。）
ChapterThirtyTwoKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartVIII:
PrimativeAccumulationCHAPTERTHIRTY—TWO:
HISTORICALTENDENCYOFCAPITALISTACCUMULATION
Whatdoestheprimitiveaccumulationofcapital，i。e。，itshistoricalgenesis，resolveitselfinto？Insofarasitisnotimmediatetransformationofslavesandserfsintowage—laborers，andthereforeamerechangeofform，itonlymeanstheexpropriationoftheimmediateproducers，i。e。，thedissolutionofprivatepropertybasedonthelaborofitsowner。Privateproperty，astheantithesistosocial，collectiveproperty，existsonlywherethemeansoflaborandtheexternalconditionsoflaborbelongtoprivateindividuals。Butaccordingastheseprivateindividualsarelaborersornotlaborers，privatepropertyhasadifferentcharacter。Thenumberlessshades，thatitatfirstsightpresents，correspondtotheintermediatestageslyingbetweenthesetwoextremes。Theprivatepropertyofthelaborerinhismeansofproductionisthefoundationofpettyindustry，whetheragricultural，manufacturing，orboth;pettyindustry，again，isanessentialconditionforthedevelopmentofsocialproductionandofthefreeindividualityofthelaborerhimself。Ofcourse，thispettymodeofproductionexistsalsounderslavery，serfdom，andotherstatesofdependence。Butitflourishes，itletslooseitswholeenergy，itattainsitsadequateclassicalform，onlywherethelaboreristheprivateownerofhisownmeansoflaborsetinactionbyhimself:thepeasantofthelandwhichhecultivates，theartisanofthetoolwhichhehandlesasavirtuoso。Thismodeofproductionpre—supposesparcellingofthesoilandscatteringoftheothermeansofproduction。Asitexcludestheconcentrationofthesemeansofproduction，soalsoitexcludesco—operation，divisionoflaborwithineachseparateprocessofproduction，thecontrolover，andtheproductiveapplicationoftheforcesofNaturebysociety，andthefreedevelopmentofthesocialproductivepowers。Itiscompatibleonlywithasystemofproduction，andasociety，movingwithinnarrowandmoreorlessprimitivebounds。Toperpetuateitwouldbe，asPecqueurrightlysays，\"todecreeuniversalmediocrity\"。
Atacertainstageofdevelopment，itbringsforththematerialagenciesforitsowndissolution。Fromthatmomentnewforcesandnewpassionsspringupinthebosomofsociety;buttheoldsocialorganizationfettersthemandkeepsthemdown。Itmustbeannihilated;itisannihilated。Itsannihilation，thetransformationoftheindividualizedandscatteredmeansofproductionintosociallyconcentratedones，ofthepigmypropertyofthemanyintothehugepropertyofthefew，theexpropriationofthegreatmassofthepeoplefromthesoil，fromthemeansofsubsistence，andfromthemeansoflabor，thisfearfulandpainfulexpropriationofthemassofthepeopleformsthepreludetothehistoryofcapital。Itcomprisesaseriesofforciblemethods，ofwhichwehavepassedinreviewonlythosethathavebeenepoch—makingasmethodsoftheprimitiveaccumulationofcapital。TheexpropriationoftheimmediateproducerswasaccomplishedwithmercilessVandalism，andunderthestimulusofpassionsthemostinfamous，themostsordid，thepettiest，themostmeanlyodious。Self—earnedprivateproperty，thatisbased，sotosay，onthefusingtogetheroftheisolated，independentlaboring—individualwiththeconditionsofhislabor，issupplantedbycapitalisticprivateproperty，whichrestsonexploitationofthenominallyfreelaborofothers，i。e。，onwage—labor。[1]
Assoonasthisprocessoftransformationhassufficientlydecomposedtheoldsocietyfromtoptobottom，assoonasthelaborersareturnedintoproletarians，theirmeansoflaborintocapital，assoonasthecapitalistmodeofproductionstandsonitsownfeet，thenthefurthersocializationoflaborandfurthertransformationofthelandandothermeansofproductionintosociallyexploitedand，therefore，commonmeansofproduction，aswellasthefurtherexpropriationofprivateproprietors，takesanewform。
Thatwhichisnowtobeexpropriatedisnolongerthelaborerworkingforhimself，butthecapitalistexploitingmanylaborers。Thisexpropriationisaccomplishedbytheactionoftheimmanentlawsofcapitalisticproductionitself，bythecentralizationofcapital。Onecapitalistalwayskillsmany。
Handinhandwiththiscentralization，orthisexpropriationofmanycapitalistsbyfew，develop，onanever—extendingscale，theco—operativeformofthelabor—process，theconscioustechnicalapplicationofscience，themethodicalcultivationofthesoil，thetransformationoftheinstrumentsoflaborintoinstrumentsoflaboronlyusableincommon，theeconomizingofallmeansofproductionbytheiruseasmeansofproductionofcombined，socializedlabor，theentanglementofallpeoplesinthenetoftheworld—market，andwiththis，theinternationalcharacterofthecapitalisticregime。
Alongwiththeconstantlydiminishingnumberofthemagnatesofcapital，whousurpandmonopolizealladvantagesofthisprocessoftransformation，growsthemassofmisery，oppression，slavery，degradation，exploitation;
butwiththistoogrowstherevoltoftheworking—class，aclassalwaysincreasinginnumbers，anddisciplined，united，organizedbytheverymechanismoftheprocessofcapitalistproductionitself。Themonopolyofcapitalbecomesafetteruponthemodeofproduction，whichhassprungupandflourishedalongwith，andunderit。Centralizationofthemeansofproductionandsocializationoflaboratlastreachapointwheretheybecomeincompatiblewiththeircapitalistintegument。Thusintegumentisburstasunder。Theknellofcapitalistprivatepropertysounds。Theexpropriatorsareexpropriated。
Thecapitalistmodeofappropriation，theresultofthecapitalistmodeofproduction，producescapitalistprivateproperty。Thisisthefirstnegationofindividualprivateproperty，asfoundedonthelaboroftheproprietor。Butcapitalistproductionbegets，withtheinexorabilityofalawofNature，itsownnegation。Itisthenegationofnegation。Thisdoesnotre—establishprivatepropertyfortheproducer，butgiveshimindividualpropertybasedontheacquisitionofthecapitalistera:i。e。，onco—operationandthepossessionincommonofthelandandofthemeansofproduction。
Thetransformationofscatteredprivateproperty，arisingfromindividuallabor，intocapitalistprivatepropertyis，naturally，aprocess，incomparablymoreprotracted，violent，anddifficult，thanthetransformationofcapitalisticprivateproperty，alreadypracticallyrestingonsocializedproduction，intosocializedproperty。Intheformercase，wehadtheexpropriationofthemassofthepeoplebyafewusurpers;inthelatter，wehavetheexpropriationofafewusurpersbythemassofthepeople。[2]
Footnotes[1]\"Noussommesdansuneconditiontout—à—faitnouvelledelasocieté……
noustendonsaseparertouteespecedeproprieted’avectouteespècedetravail。\"（Sismondi:\"NouveauxPrincipesd’Econ。Polit。\"t。II，p。434。）
[2]Theadvanceofindustry，whoseinvoluntarypromoteristhebourgeoisie，replacestheisolationofthelaborers，duetocompetition，bytheirrevolutionarycombination，duetoassociation。ThedevelopmentofModernIndustry，therefore，cutsfromunderitsfeettheveryfoundationonwhichthebourgeoisieproducesandappropriatesproducts。Whatthebourgeoisie，therefore，produces，aboveall，areitsowngrave—diggers。Itsfallandthevictoryoftheproletariatareequallyinevitable……Ofalltheclassesthatstandface—to—facewiththebourgeoisietoday，theproletariataloneisareallyrevolutionaryclass。TheotherclassesperishanddisappearinthefaceofModernIndustry，theproletariatisitsspecialandessentialproduct……Thelowermiddle—classes，thesmallmanufacturers，theshopkeepers，theartisan，thepeasant，allthesefightagainstthebourgeoisie，tosavefromextinctiontheirexistenceasfractionsofthemiddle—class……theyarereactionary，fortheytrytorollbackthewheelofhistory。KarlMarxandFriedrichEngels，\"ManifestderKommunistischenPartei\"，London，1848，pp。9，11。
ChapterThirty—ThreeKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartVIII:
PrimativeAccumulationCHAPTERTHIRTY—THREE:
THEMODERNTHEORYOFCOLONISATION[1]
Politicaleconomyconfusesonprincipletwoverydifferentkindsofprivateproperty，ofwhichonerestsontheproducers’ownlabor，theotherontheemploymentofthelaborofothers。Itforgetsthatthelatternotonlyisthedirectantithesisoftheformer，butabsolutelygrowsonitstombonly。InWesternEurope，thehomeofPoliticalEconomy，theprocessofprimitiveaccumulationismoreoflessaccomplished。Herethecapitalistregimehaseitherdirectlyconqueredthewholedomainofnationalproduction，or，whereeconomicconditionsarelessdeveloped，it，atleast，indirectlycontrolsthosestrataofsocietywhich，thoughbelongingtotheantiquatedmodeofproduction，continuetoexistsidebysidewithitingradualdecay。
Tothisready—madeworldofcapital，thepoliticaleconomistappliesthenotionsoflawandofpropertyinheritedfromapre—capitalisticworldwithallthemoreanxiouszealandallthegreaterunction，themoreloudlythefactscryoutinthefaceofhisideology。Itisotherwiseinthecolonies。
Therethecapitalistregimeeverywherecomesintocollisionwiththeresistanceoftheproducer，who，asownerofhisownconditionsoflabor，employsthatlabortoenrichhimself，insteadofthecapitalist。Thecontradictionofthesetwodiametricallyopposedeconomicsystems，manifestitselfherepracticallyinastrugglebetweenthem。Wherethecapitalisthasathisbackthepowerofthemother—country，hetriestoclearoutofhiswaybyforcethemodesofproductionandappropriationbasedontheindependentlaboroftheproducer。Thesameinterest，whichcompelsthesycophantofcapital，thepoliticaleconomist，inthemother—country，toproclaimthetheoreticalidentityofthecapitalistmodeofproductionwithitscontrary，thatsameinterestcompelshiminthecoloniestomakeacleanbreastofit，andtoproclaimaloudtheantagonismofthetwomodesofproduction。
Tothisend，heproveshowthedevelopmentofthesocialproductivepoweroflabor，co—operation，divisionoflabor，useofmachineryonalargescale，&c。，areimpossiblewithouttheexpropriationofthelaborers，andthecorrespondingtransformationoftheirmeansofproductionintocapital。Intheinterestoftheso—callednationalwealth，heseeksforartificialmeanstoensurethepovertyofthepeople。Herehisapologeticarmorcrumblesoff，bitbybit，likerottentouchwood。ItisthegreatmeritofE。G。Wakefieldtohavediscovered，notanythingnewabouttheColonies[2]，buttohavediscoveredintheColoniesthetruthastotheconditionsofcapitalistproductioninthemothercountry。Asthesystemofprotectionatitsorigin[3]attemptedtomanufacturecapitalistsartificiallyinthemother—country，soWakefield’scolonizationtheory，whichEnglandtriedforatimetoenforcebyActsofParliament，attemptedtoeffectthemanufactureofwage—workersintheColonies。Thishecalls\"systematiccolonization\"。
Firstofall，WakefielddiscoveredthatintheColonies，propermeansofsubsistence，machines，andothermeansofproduction，doesnotasyetstampamanasacapitalistiftherebewantingthecorrelative？thewage—worker，theothermanwhoiscompelledtosellhimselfofhisownfree—will。Hediscoveredthatcapitalisnotathing，butasocialrelationbetweenpersons，establishedbytheinstrumentalityofthings;[4]Mr。Peel，hemoans，tookhimfromEnglandtoSwanRiver，WestAustralia，meansofsubsistenceandofproductiontotheamountof£50，000。
Mr。Peelhadtheforesighttobringwithhim，besides，3，000personsoftheworking—class，men，women，andchildren。Oncearrivedathisdestination，\"Mr。Peelwasleftwithoutaservanttomakehisbedorfetchhimwaterfromtheriver。\"[5]UnhappyMr。PeelwhoprovidedforeverythingexcepttheexportofEnglishmodesofproductiontoSwanRiver！
FortheunderstandingofthefollowingdiscoveriesofWakefield，twopreliminaryremarks:Weknowthatthemeansofproductionandsubsistence，whiletheyremainthepropertyoftheimmediateproducer，arenotcapital。
Theybecomecapitalonlyundercircumstancesinwhichtheyserveatthesametimeasmeansofexploitationandsubjectionofthelaborer。Butthiscapitalistsouloftheirsissointimatelywedded，intheheadofthepoliticaleconomist，totheirmaterialsubstance，thathechristensthemcapitalunderallcircumstances，evenwhentheyareitsexactopposite。ThusisitwithWakefield。Further:thesplittingupofthemeansofproductionintotheindividualpropertyofmanyindependentlaborers，workingontheirownaccount，hecallsequaldivisionofcapital。Itiswiththepoliticaleconomistaswiththefeudaljurist。Thelatterstuckontopuremonetaryrelationsthelabelssuppliedbyfeudallaw。
\"If，\"saysWakefield，\"allmembersofthesocietyaresupposedtopossessequalportionsofcapital……nomanwouldhaveamotiveforaccumulatingmorecapitalthanhecouldusewithhisownhands。ThisistosomeextentthecaseinnewAmericansettlements，whereapassionforowninglandpreventstheexistenceofaclassoflaborersforhire。\"[6]Solong，therefore，asthelaborercanaccumulateforhimself？andthishecandosolongasheremainspossessorofhismeansofproduction？
capitalistaccumulationandthecapitalisticmodeofproductionareimpossible。
Theclassofwage—laborers，essentialtothese，iswanting。How，then，inoldEurope，wastheexpropriationofthelaborerfromhisconditionsoflabor，i。e。，theco—existenceofcapitalandwage—labor，broughtabout？
Byasocialcontractofaquiteoriginalkind。\"Mankindhaveadopteda……
simplecontrivanceforpromotingtheaccumulationofcapital，\"which，ofcourse，sincethetimeofAdam，floatedintheirimagination，floatedintheirimaginationasthesoleandfinalendoftheirexistence:\"theyhavedividedthemselvesintoownersofcapitalandownersoflabor……Thedivisionwastheresultofconcertandcombinationp;[7]Inoneword:themassofmankindexpropriateditselfinhonorofthe\"accumulationofcapital\"。Now，onewouldthinkthatthisinstinctofself—denyingfanaticismwouldgiveitselffullflingespeciallyintheColonies，wherealoneexistthemenandconditionsthatcouldturnasocialcontractfromadreamtoareality。Butwhy，then，should\"systematiccolonization\"becalledintoreplaceitsopposite，spontaneous，unregulatedcolonization？But—but—\"IntheNorthernStatesoftheAmericanUnion;
itmaybedoubtedwhethersomanyasatenthofthepeoplewouldfallunderthedescriptionofhiredlaborers……InEngland……thelaboringclasscomposethebulkofthepeople。\"[8]Nay，theimpulsetoself—expropriationonthepartoflaboringhumanityforthegloryofcapital，existssolittlethatslavery，accordingtoWakefieldhimself，isthesolenaturalbasisofColonialwealth。
Hissystematiccolonizationisamerepisaller，sinceheunfortunatelyhastodowithfreemen，notwithslaves。\"ThefirstSpanishsettlersinSaintDomingodidnotobtainlaborersfromspain。But，withoutlaborers，theircapitalmusthaveperished，oratleast，mustsoonhavebeendiminishedtothatsmallamountwhicheachindividualcouldemploywithhisownhands。
ThishasactuallyoccurredinthelastColonyfoundedbyEngland？theSwanRiverSettlement？whereagreatmassofcapital，ofseeds，implements，andcattle，hasperishedforwantoflaborerstouseit，andwherenosettlerhaspreservedmuchmorecapitalthanhecanemploywithhisownhandsp;[9]
Wehaveseenthattheexpropriationofthemassofthepeoplefromthesoilformsthebasisofthecapitalistmodeofproduction。Theessenceofafreecolony，onthecontrary，consistsinthis？thatthebulkofthesoilisstillpublicproperty，andeverysettleronitthereforecanturnpartofitintohisprivatepropertyandindividualmeansofproduction，withouthinderingthelatersettlersinthesameoperation。[10]Thisisthesecretbothoftheprosperityofthecoloniesandoftheirinveteratevice？oppositiontotheestablishmentofcapital。\"Wherelandisverycheapandallmenarefree，whereeveryonewhosopleasescaneasilyobtainapieceoflandforhimself，notonlyislaborverydear，asrespectsthelaborer’sshareoftheproduce，butthedifficultyistoobtaincombinedlaboratanyprice。;[11]
Asinthecoloniestheseparationofthelaborerfromtheconditionsoflaborandtheirroot，thesoil，doesnotexist，oronlysporadically，orontoolimitedascale，soneitherdoestheseparationofagriculturefromindustryexist，notthedestructionofthehouseholdindustryofthepeasantry。Whencethenistocometheinternalmarketforcapital？\"NopartofthepopulationofAmericaisexclusivelyagricultural，exceptingslavesandtheiremployerswhocombinecapitalandlaborinparticularworks。FreeAmericans，whocultivatethesoil，followmanyotheroccupations。
Someportionofthefurnitureandtoolswhichtheyuseiscommonlymadebythemselves。Theyfrequentlybuildtheirownhouses，andcarrytomarket，atwhateverdistance，theproduceoftheirownindustry。Theyarespinnersandweavers;theymakesoapandcandles，aswellas，inmanycases，shoesandclothesfortheirownuse。InAmericathecultivationoflandisoftenthesecondarypursuitofablacksmith，amillerorashopkeeper。\"[12]Withsuchqueerpeopleasthese，whereisthe\"fieldofabstinence\"forthecapitalists？
Thegreatbeautyofcapitalistproductionconsistsinthis？thatitnotonlyconstantlyreproducesthewage—workeraswage—worker，butproducesalways，inproductiontotheaccumulationofcapital，arelativesurplus—populationofwage—workers。Thusthelawofsupplyanddemandoflaboriskeptintherightrut，theoscillationofwagesispennedwithinlimitssatisfactorytocapitalistexploitation，andlastly，thesocialdependenceofthelaboreronthecapitalist，thatindispensablerequisite，issecured;anunmistakablerelationofdependence，whichthesmugpoliticaleconomist，athome，inthemother—country，cantransmogrifyintooneoffreecontractbetweenbuyerandseller，betweenequallyindependentownersofcommodities，theownerofthecommoditycapitalandtheownerofthecommoditylabor。Butinthecolonies，thisprettyfancyistornasunder。Theabsolutepopulationhereincreasesmuchmorequicklythaninthemother—country，becausemanylaborersenterthisworldasready—madeadults，andyetthelabor—marketisalwaysunderstocked。Thelawofsupplyanddemandoflaborfallstopieces。Ontheonehand，theoldworldconstantlythrowsincapital，thirstingafterexploitationand\"abstinence\";ontheother，theregularreproductionofthewage—laboreraswage—laborercomesintocollisionwithimpedimentsthemostimpertinentandinpartinvincible。Whatbecomesoftheproductionofwage—laborersintoindependentproducers，whoworkforthemselvesinsteadofforcapital，andenrichthemselvesinsteadofthecapitalistgentry，reactsinitsturnveryperverselyontheconditionsofthelabor—market。
Notonlydoesthedegreeofexploitationofthewage—laborerremainindecentlylow。Thewage—laborerlosesintothebargain，alongwiththerelationofdependence，alsothesentimen;ofdependenceontheabstemiouscapitalist。HencealltheinconveniencesthatourE。G。Wakefieldpicturessodoughtily，soeloquently，sopathetically。
Thesupplyofwage—labor，hecomplains，isneitherconstant，norregular，norsufficient。\"Thesupplyoflaborisalwaysnotonlysmallbutuncertain。\"[13]\"Thoughtheproducedividedbetweenthecapitalistandthelaborerbelarge，thelaborertakessogreatasharethathesoonbecomesacapitalist……
Few，eventhosewhoselivesareunusuallylong，canaccumulategreatmassesofwealth。\"[14]Thelaborersmostdistinctlydeclinetoallowthecapitalisttoabstainfromthepaymentofthegreaterpartoftheirlabor。Itavailshimnothing，isheissocunningastoimportfromEurope，withhisowncapital，hisownwage—workers。Theysoon\"cease……
tobelaborersforhire;they……becomeindependentlandowners，ifnotcompetitorswiththeirformermastersinthelabor—market。\"[15]Thinkofthehorror！TheexcellentcapitalisthasimportedbodilyfromEurope，withhisowngoodmoney，hisowncompetitors！Theendoftheworldhascome！NowonderWakefieldlamentstheabsenceofalldependenceandofallsentimentofdependenceonthepartofthewage—workersinthecolonies。
Onaccountofthehighwages，sayshisdisciple，Merivale，thereisinthecolonies\"theurgentdesireforcheaperandmoresubservientlaborers？foraclasstowhomthecapitalistmightdictateterms，insteadofbeingdictatedtobythem……Inancientcivilizedcountriesthelaborer，thoughfree，isbyalawofNaturedependentoncapitalists;incoloniesthisdependencemustbecreatedbyartificialmeans。;[16]
Whatisnow，accordingtoWakefield，theconsequenceofthisunfortunatestateofthingsinthecolonies？A\"barbarisingtendencyofdispersion\"
ofproducersandnationalwealth。[17]Theparcelling—outofthemeansofproductionamonginnumerableowners，workingontheirownaccount，annihilates，alongwiththecentralizationofcapital，allthefoundationofcombinedlabor。Everylong—windedundertaking，extendingoverseveralyearsanddemandingoutlayoffixedcapital，ispreventedfrombeingcarriedout。InEurope，capitalinvestswithouthesitatingamoment，fortheworking—classconstitutesitslivingappurtennce，alwaysinexcess，alwaysatdisposal。Butinthecolonies！Wakefieldtellsandextremelydolefulanecdote。HewastalkingwithsomecapitalistsofCanadaandthestateofNewYork，wheretheimmigrantwaveoftenbecomesstagnantanddepositsasedimentof\"supernumerary\"laborers。\"Ourcapital，\"saysoneofthecharactersinthemelodrama，\"wasreadyformanyoperationswhichrequireaconsiderableperiodoftimefortheircompletion;butwecouldnotbeginsuchoperationswithlaborwhich，weknew，wouldsoonleaveus。Ifwehadbeensureofretrainingthelaborofsuchemigrants，weshouldhavebeengladtohaveengageditatonce，andforahighprice:andweshouldhaveengagedit，eventhoughwehadbeensureitwouldleaveus，providedwehadbeensureofafreshsupplywheneverwemightneedit。\"[18]
AfterWakefieldhasconstructedtheEnglishcapitalistagricultureandits\"combined\"laborwiththescatteredcultivationofAmericanpeasants，heunwittinglygivesusaglimpseatthereverseofthemedal。HedepictsthemassoftheAmericanpeopleaswell—to—do，independent，enterprising，andcomparativelycultured，whilst\"theEnglishagriculturallaborerismiserablewretch，apauper……Inwhatcountry，exceptNorthAmericaandsomenewcolonies，dothewagesoffreelaboremployedinagriculturemuchexceedabaresubsistenceforthelaborer？……Undoubtedly，farm—horsesinEngland，beingavaluableproperty，arebetterfedthanEnglishpeasants。\"[19]But，nevermind，nationalwealthis，onceagain，byitsverynature，identicalwithmiseryofthepeople。
How，then，tohealtheanti—capitalisticcancerofthecolonies？Ifmenwerewilling，atablow，toturnallthesoilfrompublicintoprivateproperty，theywoulddestroycertainlytherootoftheevil，butalso？
thecolonies。Thetrickishowtokilltwobirdswithonestone。LettheGovernmentputuponthevirginsoilanartificialprice，independentofthelawofsupplyanddemand，apricethatcompelstheimmigranttoworkalongtimeforwagesbeforehecanearnenoughmoneytobuyland，andturnhimselfintoanindependentpeasant。[20]Thefundresultingfromthesaleoflandatapricerelativelyprohibitoryforthewage—workers，thisfundofmoneyextortedfromthewagesoflaborbyviolationofthesacredlawofsupplyanddemand，theGovernmentistoemploy，ontheotherhand，inproportionasitgrows;toimporthave—nothingsfromEuropeintothecolonies，andthuskeepthewage—labormarketfullforthecapitalists。Underthesecircumstances，toutserapourlemieuxdanslemeilleurdesmondespossibles。Thisisthegreatsecretof\"systematiccolonization\"。Bythisplan，Wakefieldcriesintriumph，\"thesupplyoflabormustbeconstantandregular，because，first，asnolaborerwouldbeabletoprocurelanduntilhehadworkedformoney，allimmigrantlaborers，workingforatimeforwagesandincombination，wouldproducecapitalfortheemploymentofmorelaborers;secondly，becauseeverylaborerwholeftoffworkingforwagesandbecamealandownerwould，bypurchasingland，provideafundforbringingfreshlabortothecolony。\"[21]ThepriceofthesoilimposedbytheStatemust，ofcourse，bea\"sufficientprice\"？i。e。，sohigh\"astopreventthelaborersfrombecomingindependentlandownersuntilothershadfollowedtotaketheirplace。\"[22]This\"sufficientpricefortheland\"isnothingbutaeuphemisticcircumlocutionfortheransomwhichthelaborerpaystothecapitalistforleavetoretirefromthewage—labormarkettotheland。First，hemustcreateforthecapitalist\"capital\"，withwhichthelattermaybeabletoexploitmorelaborers;
thenhemustplace，athisownexpense，alocumtenensonthelabor—market，whomtheGovernmentforwardsacrosstheseaforthebenefitofhisoldmaster，thecapitalist。
ItisverycharacteristicthattheEnglishGovernmentforyearspractisedthismethodof\"primitiveaccumulation\"prescribedbyMr。Wakefieldexpresslyfortheuseofthecolonies。Thefiascowas，ofcourse，ascompleteasthatofSirRobertPeel’sBankAct。ThestreamofemigrationwasonlydivertedfromtheEnglishcoloniestotheUntiedStates。Meanwhile，theadvanceofcapitalisticproductioninEurope，accompaniedbyincreasingGovernmentpressure，hasrenderedWakefield’srecipesuperfluous。Ontheonehand，theenormousandceaselessstreamofmen，yearafteryeardrivenuponAmerica，leavesbehindastationarysedimentintheeastoftheUnitedStates，thewaveofimmigrationfromEuropethrowingmenonthelabor—markettheremorerapidlythanthewaveofemigrationwestwardscanwashthemaway。
Ontheotherhand，theAmericanCivilWarbroughtinitstrainacolossalnationaldebt，and，withit，pressureoftaxes，theriseofthevilestfinancialaristocracy，thesquanderingofahugepartofthepubliclandonspeculativecompaniesfortheexploitationofrailways，mines，&c。，inbrief，themostrapidcentralizationofcapital。Thegreatrepublichas，therefore，ceasedtobethepromisedlandforemigrantlaborers。Capitalisticproductionadvancestherewithgiantstrides，eventhoughtheloweringofwagesandthedependenceofthewage—workerareyetfarfrombeingbroughtdowntothenormalEuropeanlevel。TheshamelesslavishingofuncultivatedcoloniallandonaristocratsandcapitalistsbytheGovernment，soloudlydenouncedevenbyWakefield，hasproduced，especiallyinAustralia[23]，inconjunctionwiththestreamofmenthatthegold—diggingsattract，andwiththecompetitionthattheimportationofEnglish—commoditiescauseseventothesmallestartisan，anample\"relativesurpluslaboringpopulation\"，sothatalmosteverymailbringstheJob’snewsofa\"glutoftheAustralialabor—market\"，andtheprostitutioninsomeplacesflourishesaswantonlyasintheLondonHeymarket。
However，wearenotconcernedherewiththeconditionsofthecolonies。
TheonlythingthatinterestsusisthesecretdiscoveredinthenewworldbythePoliticalEconomyoftheoldworld，andproclaimedonthehousetops:
thatthecapitalistmodeofproductionandaccumulation，andthereforecapitalistprivateproperty，havefortheirfundamentalconditiontheannihilationofself—earnedprivateproperty;inotherwords，theexpropriationofthelaborer。
Footnotes[1]WetreathereofrealColonies，virginssoils，colonizedbyfreeimmigrants。
TheUnitedStatesare，speakingeconomically，stillonlyaColonyofEurope。
Besides，tothiscategorybelongsucholdplantationsasthoseinwhichtheabolitionofslaveryhascompletelyalteredtheearlierconditions。
[2]Wakefield’sfewglimpsesonthesubjectofModernColonizationarefullyanticipatedbyMirabeauPere，thephysiocrat，andevenmuchearlierbyEnglisheconomists。
[3]Later，itbecameatemporarynecessityintheinternationalcompetititvestruggle。But，whateveritsmotive，theconsequencesremainthesame。
[4]\"Anegroisanegro。Incertaincircumstanceshebecomesaslave。Amuleisamachineforspinningcotton。Onlyundercertaincircumstancesdoesitbecomecapital。Outsidethesecircumstances，itisnomorecapitalthangoldisintrinsicallymoney，orsugaristhepriceofsugar……Capitalisasocialrelationofproduction。Itisahistoricalrelationofproduction。\"
（KarlMarx，\"LohnarbeitundKapital\"，N。Rh。Z。，No。266，April7，1849。）
[5]E。G。Wakefield:\"EnglandandAmerica\"，vol。ii。p。33。
[6]l。c。，p。17。
[7]l。c。，vol。i，p。18。
[8]l。c。，pp。42，43，44。
[9]l。c。，vol。ii，p。5。
[10]\"Land，tobeanelementofcolonization，mustnotonlybewaste，butitmustbepublicproperty，liabletobeconvertedintoprivateproperty。\"
（l。c。，Vol。II，p。125。）
[11]l。c。，Vol。I，p。247。
[12]l。c。，pp。21，22。
[13]l。c。，Vol。II，p。116。
[14]l。c。，Vol。I，p。131。
[15]l。c。，Vol。II，p。5。
[16]Merivale，l。c。，Vol。II，pp。235—314passim。Eventhemild，Free—trade，vulgareconomist，Molinari，says:\"Danslescoloniesoùl’esclavageaété
abolisansqueletravailforcésetrouvaitremplaceparunequantité
équivalentedetravaillibre，onavus’opérerlacontre—partiedufaitquiseréalisetouslesjourssousnosyeux。Onavulessimplestravailleursexploiteràleurtourlesentrepreneursd’industrie，exigerd’euxdessalaireshorsdetouteproportionaveclapartlégitimequileurrevenaitdansleproduit。Lesplanteurs，nepouvantobtenirdeleurssucresunprixsuffisantpourcouvrirlahaussedesalaire，ontété
obligésdefournirl’excédant，d’abordsurleursprofits，ensuitesurleurscapitauxmêmes。Unefouledeplanteursontété
ruinésdelasorte，d’autresontferméleursateliersouréchapperàuneruineimminente……Sansdoute，ilvautmieuxvoirpérirdesaccumulationsdecapitauxquedasgénérationsd’hommes[howgenerousMr。Molinari！]:maisnevaudrait—ilpasmieuxquenilesunsnilesautrespérissent？（Molinari，l。c。，pp。51，52。）
Mr。Molinari，Mr。Molinari！Whatthenbecomesofthetencommandments，ofMosesandtheprophets，ofthelawofsupplyanddemand，ifinEuropethe\"entrepreneur\"cancutdownthelaborer’slegitimatepart，andintheWestIndies，thelaborercancutdowntheentrepreneur’s？Andwhat，ifyouplease，isthis\"legitimatepart\"，whichonyourownshowingthecapitalistinEuropedailyneglectstopay？Overyonder，inthecolonieswherethelaborersareso\"simple\"asto\"exploit\"thecapitalist，Mr。Molinarifeelsastrongitchingtosetthelawofsupplyanddemand，thatworkselsewhereautomatically，ontherightroadbymeansofthepolice。
[17]Wakefield，l。c。，Vol。II，p。52。
[18]l。c。，pp。191，192。
[19]l。c。，Vol。I，p。47，246。
[20]\"C’est，ajoutez—vous，grâceal’appropriationdusoletdescapitauxquel’homme，quin’aquesesbras，trouvedel’occupationetsefaitunrevenu……c’estaucontraire，grâceàl’appropriationindividuelledusolqu’ilsetrouvedeshommesn’ayantqueleursbras……Quandvousmettezunhommedanslevide，vousvousemparezdel’atmosphère。
Ainsifaites—vous，quandvousvousemparezdusol……C’estlemettredanslevidederichesses，pournelalaisservivrequ’àvotrevolonté。\"
（Collins，l。c。t。III，pp。268—71，passim。）
[21]Wakefield，l。c。，Vol。II，p。192。
[22]l。c。，p。45。
[23]AssoonasAustraliabecameherownlaw—giver，shepassed，ofcourse，lawsfavorabletothesettlers，butthesquanderingoftheland，alreadyaccomplishedbytheEnglishGovernment，standsintheway。\"ThefirstandmainobjectatwhichnewLandActof1862aimsistogiveincreasedfacilitiesforthesettlementofthepeople。\"（\"TheLandLawofVictoria\"，bytheHon。
C。G。Duffy，MinisterofPublicLands，Lond。，1862。）