Whilesimpleco—operationleavesthemodeofworkingbytheindividualforthemostpartunchanged，manufacturethoroughlyrevolutionisesit，andseizeslabour—powerbyitsveryroots。Itconvertsthelabourerintoacrippledmonstrosity，byforcinghisdetaildexterityattheexpenseofaworldofproductivecapabilitiesandinstincts;
justasintheStatesofLaPlatatheybutcherawholebeastforthesakeofhishideorhistallow。Notonlyisthedetailworkdistributedtothedifferentindividuals，buttheindividualhimselfismadetheautomaticmotorofafractionaloperation，[40]andtheabsurdfableofMeneniusAgrippa，whichmakesmanamerefragmentofhisownbody，becomesrealised。[41]If，atfirst，theworkmansellshislabour—powertocapital，becausethematerialmeansofproducingacommodityfailhim，nowhisverylabour—powerrefusesitsservicesunlessithasbeensoldtocapital。Itsfunctionscanbeexercisedonlyinanenvironmentthatexistsintheworkshopofthecapitalistafterthesale。Bynatureunfittedtomakeanythingindependently，themanufacturinglabourerdevelopsproductiveactivityasamereappendageofthecapitalist’sworkshop。[42]AsthechosenpeopleboreintheirfeaturesthesignmanualofJehovah，sodivisionoflabourbrandsthemanufacturingworkmanasthepropertyofcapital。
Theknowledge，thejudgement，andthewill，which，thoughineversosmalladegree，arepractisedbytheindependentpeasantorhandicraftsman，inthesamewayasthesavagemakesthewholeartofwarconsistintheexerciseofhispersonalcunningthesefacultiesarenowrequiredonlyfortheworkshopasawhole。Intelligenceinproductionexpandsinonedirection，becauseitvanishesinmanyothers。Whatislostbythedetaillabourers，isconcentratedinthecapitalthatemploysthem。[43]Itisaresultofthedivisionoflabourinmanufactures，thatthelabourerisbroughtfacetofacewiththeintellectualpotenciesofthematerialprocessofproduction，asthepropertyofanother，andasarulingpower。
Thisseparationbeginsinsimpleco—operation，wherethecapitalistrepresentstothesingleworkman，theonenessandthewilloftheassociatedlabour。
Itisdevelopedinmanufacturewhichcutsdownthelabourerintoadetaillabourer。Itiscompletedinmodernindustry，whichmakesscienceaproductiveforcedistinctfromlabourandpressesitintotheserviceofcapital。[44]
Inmanufacture，inordertomakethecollectivelabourer，andthroughhimcapital，richinsocialproductivepower，eachlabourermustbemadepoorinindividualproductivepowers。\"Ignoranceisthemotherofindustryaswellasofsuperstition。Reflectionandfancyaresubjecttoerr;butahabitofmovingthehandorthefootisindependentofeither。Manufactures，accordingly，prospermostwherethemindisleastconsulted，andwheretheworkshopmay……beconsideredasanengine，thepartsofwhicharemen。\"[45]Asamatteroffact，somefewmanufacturersinthemiddleofthe18thcenturypreferred，forcertainoperationsthatweretradesecrets，toemployhalf—idioticpersons。[46]
\"Theunderstandingsofthegreaterpartofmen，\"saysAdamSmith，\"arenecessarilyformedbytheirordinaryemployments。Themanwhosewholelifeisspentinperformingafewsimpleoperations……
hasnooccasiontoexerthisunderstanding……Hegenerallybecomesasstupidandignorantasitispossibleforahumancreaturetobecome。\"Afterdescribingthestupidityofthedetaillabourerhegoeson:\"Theuniformityofhisstationarylifenaturallycorruptsthecourageofhismind……Itcorruptseventheactivityofhisbodyandrendershimincapableofexertinghisstrengthwithvigourandperseveranceinanyotheremploymentsthanthattowhichhehasbeenbred。Hisdexterityathisownparticulartradeseemsinthismannertobeacquiredattheexpenseofhisintellectual，social，andmartialvirtues。Butineveryimprovedandcivilisedsociety，thisisthestateintowhichthelabouringpoor，thatis，thegreatbodyofthepeople，mustnecessarilyfall。\"[47]Forpreventingthecompletedeteriorationofthegreatmassofthepeoplebydivisionoflabour，A。SmithrecommendseducationofthepeoplebytheState，butprudently，andinhomeopathicdoses。G。Garnier，hisFrenchtranslatorandcommentator，who，underthefirstFrenchEmpire，quitenaturallydevelopedintoasenator，quiteasnaturallyopposeshimonthispoint。
Educationofthemasses，heurges，violatesthefirstlawofthedivisionoflabour，andwithit\"ourwholesocialsystemwouldbeproscribed。\"\"Likeallotherdivisionsoflabour，\"hesays，\"thatbetweenhandlabourandheadlabour[48]ismorepronouncedanddecidedinproportionassociety（herightlyusesthisword，forcapital，landedpropertyandtheirState）becomesricher。Thisdivisionoflabour，likeeveryother，isaneffectofpast，andacauseoffutureprogress……oughtthegovernmentthentoworkinoppositiontothisdivisionoflabour，andtohinderitsnaturalcourse？Oughtittoexpendapartofthepublicmoneyintheattempttoconfoundandblendtogethertwoclassesoflabour，whicharestrivingafterdivisionandseparation？\"[49]
Somecripplingofbodyandmindisinseparableevenfromdivisionoflabourinsocietyasawhole。Since，however，manufacturecarriesthissocialseparationofbranchesoflabourmuchfurther，andalso，byitspeculiardivision，attackstheindividualattheveryrootsofhislife，itisthefirsttoaffordthematerialsfor，andtogiveastartto，industrialpathology。[50]
\"Tosubdivideamanistoexecutehim，ifhedeservesthesentence，toassassinatehimifhedoesnot……Thesubdivisionoflabouristheassassinationofapeople。\"[51]
Co—operationbasedondivisionoflabour，inotherwords，manufacture，commencesasaspontaneousformation。Sosoonasitattainssomeconsistenceandextension，itbecomestherecognisedmethodicalandsystematicformofcapitalistproduction。Historyshowshowthedivisionoflabourpeculiartomanufacture，strictlysocalled，acquiresthebestadaptedformatfirstbyexperience，asitwerebehindthebacksoftheactors，andthen，liketheguildhandicrafts，strivestoholdfastthatformwhenoncefound，andhereandtheresucceedsinkeepingitforcenturies。Anyalterationinthisform，exceptintrivialmatters，issolelyowingtoarevolutionintheinstrumentsoflabour。ModernmanufacturewhereveritarisesIdonotherealludetomodernindustrybasedonmachineryeitherfindsthedisjectamembrapoetaereadytohand，andonlywaitingtobecollectedtogether，asisthecaseinthemanufactureofclothesinlargetowns，oritcaneasilyapplytheprincipleofdivision，simplybyexclusivelyassigningthevariousoperationsofahandicraft（suchasbook—binding）
toparticularmen。Insuchcases，aweek’sexperienceisenoughtodeterminetheproportionbetweenthenumbersofthehandsnecessaryforthevariousfunctions。[52]
Bydecompositionofhandicrafts，byspecialisationoftheinstrumentsoflabour，bytheformationofdetaillabourers，andbygroupingandcombiningthelatterintoasinglemechanism，divisionoflabourinmanufacturecreatesaqualitativegradation，andaquantitativeproportioninthesocialprocessofproduction;itconsequentlycreatesadefiniteorganisationofthelabourofsociety，andtherebydevelopsatthesametimenewproductiveforcesinthesociety。Initsspecificcapitalistformandunderthegivenconditions，itcouldtakenootherformthanacapitalisticonemanufactureisbutaparticularmethodofbegettingrelativesurplus—value，orofaugmentingattheexpenseofthelabourertheself—expansionofcapitalusuallycalledsocialwealth，\"WealthofNations，\"&c。Itincreasesthesocialproductivepoweroflabour，notonlyforthebenefitofthecapitalistinsteadofforthatofthelabourer，butitdoesthisbycripplingtheindividuallabourers。Itcreatesnewconditionsforthelordshipofcapitaloverlabour。If，therefore，ontheonehand，itpresentsitselfhistoricallyasaprogressandasanecessaryphaseintheeconomicdevelopmentofsociety，ontheotherhand，itisarefinedandcivilisedmethodofexploitation。
PoliticalEconomy，whichasanindependentscience，firstsprangintobeingduringtheperiodofmanufacture，viewsthesocialdivisionoflabouronlyfromthestandpointofmanufacture，[53]andseesinitonlythemeansofproducingmorecommoditieswithagivenquantityoflabour，and，consequently，ofcheapeningcommoditiesandhurryingontheaccumulationofcapital。Inmoststrikingcontrastwiththisaccentuationofquantityandexchange—value，istheattitudeofthewritersofclassicalantiquity，whoholdexclusivelybyqualityanduse—value。[54]Inconsequenceoftheseparationofthesocialbranchesofproduction，commoditiesarebettermade，thevariousbentsandtalentsofmenselectasuitablefield，[55]andwithoutsomerestraintnoimportantresultscanbeobtainedanywhere。[56]Hencebothproductandproducerareimprovedbydivisionoflabour。Ifthegrowthofthequantityproducedisoccasionallymentioned，thisisonlydonewithreferencetothegreaterabundanceofuse—values。Thereisnotawordalludingtoexchange—valueortothecheapeningofcommodities。
Thisaspect，fromthestandpointofuse—valuealone，istakenaswellbyPlato，[57]whotreatsdivisionoflabourasthefoundationonwhichthedivisionofsocietyintoclassesisbased，asbyXenophon，[58]whowithcharacteristicbourgeoisinstinct，approachesmorenearlytodivisionoflabourwithintheworkshop。Plato’sRepublic，insofarasdivisionoflabouristreatedinit，astheformativeprincipleoftheState，ismerelytheAthenianidealisationoftheEgyptiansystemofcastes，Egypthavingservedasthemodelofanindustrialcountrytomanyofhiscontemporariesalso，amongstotherstoIsocrates，[59]anditcontinuedtohavethisimportancetotheGreeksoftheRomanEmpire。[60]
Duringthemanufacturingperiodproper，i。e。，theperiodduringwhichmanufactureisthepredominantformtakenbycapitalistproduction，manyobstaclesareopposedtothefulldevelopmentofthepeculiartendenciesofmanufacture。Althoughmanufacturecreates，aswehavealreadyseen，asimpleseparationofthelabourersintoskilledandunskilled，simultaneouslywiththeirhierarchicarrangementinclasses，yetthenumberoftheunskilledlabourers，owingtothepreponderatinginfluenceoftheskilled，remainsverylimited。Althoughitadaptsthedetailoperationstothevariousdegreesofmaturity，strength，anddevelopmentofthelivinginstrumentsoflabour，thusconducingtoexploitationofwomenandchildren，yetthistendencyasawholeiswreckedonthehabitsandtheresistanceofthemalelabourers。
Althoughthesplittingupofhandicraftslowersthecostofformingtheworkman，andtherebylowershisvalue，yetforthemoredifficultdetailwork，alongerapprenticeshipisnecessary，and，evenwhereitwouldbesuperfluous，isjealouslyinsisteduponbytheworkmen。InEngland，forinstance，wefindthelawsofapprenticeship，withtheirsevenyears’probation，infullforcedowntotheendofthemanufacturingperiod;andtheyarenotthrownononesidetilltheadventofModernIndustry。Sincehandicraftskillisthefoundationofmanufacture，andsincethemechanismofmanufactureasawholepossessesnoframework，apartfromthelabourersthemselves，capitalisconstantlycompelledtowrestlewiththeinsubordinationoftheworkmen。\"Bytheinfirmityofhumannature，\"saysfriendUre，\"ithappensthatthemoreskilfultheworkman，themoreself—willedandintractableheisapttobecome，andofcoursethelessfitacomponentofamechanicalsysteminwhich……hemaydogreatdamagetothewhole。\"[61]Hencethroughoutthewholemanufacturingperiodthererunsthecomplaintofwantofdisciplineamongtheworkmen。[62]Andhadwenotthetestimonyofcontemporarywriters，thesimplefacts，thatduringtheperiodbetweenthe16thcenturyandtheepochofModernIndustry，capitalfailedtobecomethemasterofthewholedisposableworking—timeofthemanufacturinglabourers，thatmanufacturesareshort—lived，andchangetheirlocalityfromonecountrytoanotherwiththeemigratingorimmigratingworkmen，thesefactswouldspeakvolumes。\"Ordermustinonewayoranotherbeestablished，\"exclaimsin1770theoft—citedauthorofthe\"EssayonTradeandCommerce。\"\"Order，\"re—echoesDr。AndrewUre66
yearslater，\"Order\"waswantinginmanufacturebasedon\"thescholasticdogmaofdivisionoflabour，\"and\"Arkwrightcreatedorder。\"
Atthesametimemanufacturewasunable，eithertoseizeupontheproductionofsocietytoitsfullextent，ortorevolutionisethatproductiontoitsverycore。Ittoweredupasaneconomicworkofart，onthebroadfoundationofthetownhandicrafts，andoftheruraldomesticindustries。Atagivenstageinitsdevelopment，thenarrowtechnicalbasisonwhichmanufacturerested，cameintoconflictwithrequirementsofproductionthatwerecreatedbymanufactureitself。
Oneofitsmostfinishedcreationswastheworkshopfortheproductionoftheinstrumentsoflabourthemselves，includingespeciallythecomplicatedmechanicalapparatusthenalreadyemployed。Amachine—factory，saysUre，\"displayedthedivisionoflabourinmanifoldgradationsthefile，thedrill，thelathe，havingeachitsdifferentworkmanintheorderofskill。\"
（P。21。）Thisworkshop，theproductofthedivisionoflabourinmanufacture，producedinitsturnmachines。Itistheythatsweepawaythehandicraftsman’sworkastheregulatingprincipleofsocialproduction。Thus，ontheonehand，thetechnicalreasonforthelife—longannexationoftheworkmantoadetailfunctionisremoved。Ontheotherhand，thefettersthatthissameprinciplelaidonthedominionofcapital，fallaway。
Footnotes[1]Togiveamoremoderninstance:ThesilkspinningandweavingofLyonandNîmes\"esttoutepatriarcale;elleemploiebeaucoupdefemmesetd’enfants，maissanslesépuisernilescorrompre;elleleslaissedansleurbellesvalisesdelaDrôme，duVar，deI’lsère，deVaucluse，pouryéleverdesversetdéviderleurscocons;
jamaisellen’entredansunevéritablefabrique。Pourêtreaussibienobserve……leprincipedeladivisiondutravails’yrevêtd’uncaractèrespécial。Ilyabiendesdévideuses，desmoulineurs，desteinturiers，desencolleurs，puisdestisserands;maisilsnesontpasréunisdansunmêmeétablissement，nedépendentpasd’unmêmemaître，tousilssontindépendants\"
（A。Blanqui:\"Cours，d’Econ。Industrielle。\"RecueilliparA。Blaise。Paris，1838—39，p。79。）SinceBlanquiwrotethis，thevariousindependentlabourershave，tosomeextent，beenunitedinfactories。[AndsinceMarxwrotetheabove，thepower—loomhasinvadedthesefactories，andisnow1886rapidlysupersedingthehand—loom。（Addedinthe4thGermanedition。TheKrefeldsilkindustryalsohasitstaletotellanentthissubject。）F。
E。]
[2]Themoreanymanufactureofmuchvarietyshallbedistributedandassignedtodifferentartists，thesamemustneedsbebetterdoneandwithgreaterexpedition，withlesslossoftimeandlabour。\"（\"TheAdvantagesoftheEastIndiaTrade，\"Lond。，1720，p。71。）
[3]\"Easylabouristransmittedskill。\"（Th。Hodgskin，\"PopularPoliticalEconomy，\"
p。48。）
[4]\"Theartsalsohave……inEgyptreachedtherequisitedegreeofperfection。
Foritistheonlycountrywhereartificersmaynotinanywaymeddlewiththeaffairsofanotherclassofcitizens，butmustfollowthatcallingalonewhichbylawishereditaryintheirclan……Inothercountriesitisfoundthattradesmendividetheirattentionbetweentoomanyobjects。
Atonetimetheytryagriculture，atanothertheytaketocommerce，atanothertheybusythemselveswithtwoorthreeoccupationsatonce。Infreecountries，theymostlyfrequenttheassembliesofthepeople……InEgypt，onthecontrary，everyartificerisseverelypunishedifhemeddleswithaffairsofState，orcarriesonseveraltradesatonce。Thusthereisnothingtodisturbtheirapplicationtotheircalling……Moreover，since，theyinheritfromtheirforefathersnumerousrules，theyareeagertodiscoverfreshadvantages\"（DiodorusSiculus:Bibl。Hist。I。1。c。，74。）
[5]\"HistoricalanddescriptiveaccountofBrit。India，&c。，\"byHughMurrayandJamesWilson，&c。，Edinburgh1832，v。II。，p。449。TheIndianloomisupright，i。e。，thewarpisstretchedvertically。
[6]Darwininhisepoch—makingworkontheoriginofspecies，remarks，withreferencetothenaturalorgansofplantsandanimals:\"Solongasoneandthesameorganhasdifferentkindsofworktoperform，agroundforitschangeabilitymaypossiblybefoundinthis，thatnaturalselectionpreservesorsuppresseseachsmallvariationofformlesscarefullythanifthatorganweredestinedforonespecialpurposealone。Thus，knivesthatareadaptedtocutallsortsofthings，may，onthewhole，beofoneshape;butanimplementdestinedtobeusedexclusivelyinonewaymusthaveadifferentshapeforeverydifferentuse。\"
[7]Intheyear1854Genevaproduced80，000watches，whichisnotone—fifthoftheproductionintheCantonofNeufchâtel。LaChaux—de—Fondalone，whichwemaylookuponasahugewatchmanufactory，producesyearlytwiceasmanyasGeneva。From1850—61Genevaproduced720，000watches。See\"ReportfromGenevaontheWatchTrade\"in\"ReportsbyH。M。’sSecretariesofEmbassyandLegationontheManufactures，Commerce，&c。，No。6，1863。\"Thewantofconnexionalone，betweentheprocessesintowhichtheproductionofarticlesthatmerelyconsistofpartsfittedtogetherissplitup，makesitverydifficulttoconvertsuchamanufactureintoabranchofmodemindustrycarriedonbymachinery;butinthecaseofawatchtherearetwootherimpedimentsinaddition，theminutenessanddelicacyofitsparts，anditscharacterasanarticleofluxury。Hencetheirvariety，whichissuch，thatinthebestLondonhousesscarcelyadozenwatchesaremadealikeinthecourseofayear。ThewatchmanufactoryofMessrs。Vacheron&Constantin，inwhichmachineryhasbeenemployedwithsuccess，producesatthemostthreeorfourdifferentvarietiesofsizeandform。
[8]Inwatchmaking，thatclassicalexampleofheterogeneousmanufacture，wemaystudywithgreataccuracytheabove—mentioneddifferentiationandspecialisationoftheinstrumentsoflabourcausedbythesub—divisionofhandicrafts。
[9]\"Insocloseacohabitationofthepeople，thecarriagemustneedsbeless。\"
（\"TheAdvantagesoftheEastIndiaTrade，\"p。106。）
[10]\"Theisolationofthedifferentstagesofmanufacture，consequentupontheemploymentofmanuallabour，addsimmenselytothecostofproduction，thelossmainlyarisingfromthemereremovalsfromoneprocesstoanother。\"
（\"TheIndustryofNations。\"Lond。，1855，PartII，p。200。）
[11]\"It（thedivisionoflabour）producesalsoaneconomyoftimebyseparatingtheworkintoitsdifferentbranches，allofwhichmaybecarriedonintoexecutionatthesamemoment……Bycarryingonallthedifferentprocessesatonce，whichanindividualmusthaveexecutedseparately，itbecomespossibletoproduceamultitudeofpinscompletelyfinishedinthesametimeasasinglepinmighthavebeeneithercutorpointed。\"（DugaldStewart，l。c。，p。319。）
[12]\"Themorevarietyofartiststoeverymanufacture……thegreatertheorderandregularityofeverywork，thesamemustneedsbedoneinlesstime，thelabourmustbeless。’（\"TheAdvantages，\"&c。，p。68。）
[13]Nevertheless，themanufacturingsystem，inmanybranchesofindustry，attainsthisresultbutveryimperfectly，becauseitknowsnothowtocontrolwithcertaintythegeneralchemicalandphysicalconditionsoftheprocessofproduction。
[14]\"When（fromthepeculiarnatureoftheproduceofeachmanufactory），thenumberofprocessesintowhichitismostadvantageoustodivideitisascertained，aswellasthenumberofindividualstobeemployed，thenallothermanufactorieswhichdonotemployadirectmultipleofthisnumberwillproducethearticleatagreatercost……Hencearisesoneofthecausesofthegreatsizeofmanufacturingestablishments。\"（C。Babbage。
’OntheEconomyofMachinery，\"1sted。London。1832。Ch。xxi，pp。172—73。）
[15]InEngland，themelting—furnaceisdistinctfromtheglass—furnaceinwhichtheglassismanipulated。InBelgium，oneandthesamefurnaceservesforbothprocesses。
[16]ThiscanbeseenfromW。Petty，JohnBellers，AndrewYarranton，\"TheAdvantagesoftheEastIndiaTrade，\"andJ。Vanderlint，nottomentionothers。
[17]Towardstheendofthe16thcentury，mortarsandsieveswerestillusedinFranceforpoundingandwashingores。
[18]Thewholehistoryofthedevelopmentofmachinerycanbetracedinthehistoryofthecornmill。ThefactoryinEnglandisstilla\"mill\"。InGermantechnologicalworksofthefirstdecadeofthiscentury，theterm\"Mühle\"isstillfoundinuse，notonlyforallmachinerydrivenbytheforcesofNature，butalsoforallmanufactureswhereapparatusinthenatureofmachineryisapplied。
[19]Aswillbeseenmoreindetailinthefourthbookofthiswork，AdamSmithhasnotestablishedasinglenewpropositionrelatingtodivisionoflabour。
What，however，characteriseshimasthepoliticaleconomistparexcellenceoftheperiodofManufacture，isthestresshelaysondivisionoflabour。
ThesubordinatepartwhichheassignstomachinerygaveoccasionintheearlydaysofmodernmechanicalindustrytothepolemicofLauderdale，and，atalaterperiod，tothatofUre。A。Smithalsoconfoundsdifferentiationoftheinstrumentsoflabour，inwhichthedetaillabourersthemselvestookanactivepart，withtheinventionofmachinery;inthislatter，itisnottheworkmeninmanufactories，butlearnedmen，handicraftsman，andevenpeasants（Brindley），whoplayapart。
[20]\"Themastermanufacturer，bydividingtheworktobeexecutedintodifferentprocesses，eachrequiringdifferentdegreesofskillorofforce，canpurchaseexactlythatprecisequantityofbothwhichisnecessaryforeachprocess;
whereas，ifthewholeworkwereexecutedbyoneworkman，thatpersonmustpossesssufficientskilltoperformthemostdifficult，andsufficientstrengthtoexecutethemostlaboriousoftheoperationsintowhichthearticleisdivided。\"（Ch。Babbage，l。c。，ch。xix。）
[21]Forinstance，abnormaldevelopmentofsomemuscles，curvatureofbones，&c。
[22]ThequestionputbyoneoftheInquiryCommissioners，Howtheyoungpersonsarekeptsteadilytotheirwork，isverycorrectlyansweredbyMr。Wm。
Marshall，thegeneralmanagerofaglassmanufactory:\"Theycannotwellneglecttheirwork;whentheyoncebegin，theymustgoon;theyarejustthesameaspartsofamachine。\"（\"Children’sEmpl。Comm。，\"4thRep。，1865，p。247。）
[23]Dr。Ure，inhisapotheosisofModernMechanicalIndustry，bringsoutthepeculiarcharacterofmanufacturemoresharplythanpreviouseconomists，whohadnothispolemicalinterestinthematter，andmoresharplyeventhanhiscontemporariesBabbage，e。g。，who，thoughmuchhissuperiorasamathematicianandmechanician，treatedmechanicalindustryfromthestandpointofmanufacturealone。Uresays，\"Thisappropriation……toeach，aworkmanofappropriatevalueandcostwasnaturallyassigned，formstheveryessenceofdivisionoflabour。\"Ontheotherhand，hedescribesthisdivisionas\"adaptationoflabourtothedifferenttalentsofmen，\"andlastly，characterisesthewholemanufacturingsystemas\"asystemforthedivisionorgradationoflabour，\"as\"thedivisionoflabourintodegreesofskill，\"&c。
（Ure，l。c。，pp。19—23passim。）
[24]\"Eachhandicraftsmanbeing……enabledtoperfecthimselfbypracticeinonepoint，became……acheaperworkman。\"（Ure，l。c。，p。19。）
[25]\"Divisionoflabourproceedsfromtheseparationofprofessionsthemostwidelydifferenttothatdivision，whereseverallabourersdividebetweenthemthepreparationofoneandthesameproduct，asinmanufacture。\"（Storch:
\"Coursd’Econ。Pol。，\"ParisEdn。t。I。，p。173。）\"Nousrencontronschezlespeuplesparvenusàuncertaindegrédecivilisationtroisgenresdedivisionsd’industrie:lapremière，quenousnommeronsgénérale，amèneladistinctiondesproducteursenagriculteurs，manufacturiersetcommerçants，elleserapporteauxtroisprincipalesbranchesd’industrienationale;laseconderqu’onpourraitappelerspéciale，estladivisiondechaquegenred’industrieenespèces……latroisièmedivisiond’industrie，celleenfinqu’ondevraitqualifierdedivisiondelabesogneondetravailproprementdit，estcellequis’établitdanslesartsetlesmétiersséparés……quis’établitdanslaplupartdesmanufacturesetdesateliers。\"（Skarbek，l。c。，pp。84，85。）
[26]Notetothethirdedition。Subsequentverysearchingstudyoftheprimitiveconditionofman，ledtheauthortotheconclusion，thatitwasnotthefamilythatoriginallydevelopedintothetribe，butthat，onthecontrary，thetribewastheprimitiveandspontaneouslydevelopedformofhumanassociation，onthebasisofbloodrelationship，andthatoutofthefirstincipientlooseningofthetribalbonds，themanyandvariousformsofthefamilywereafterwardsdeveloped。F。E。
[27]SirJamesSteuartistheeconomistwhohashandledthissubjectbest。Howlittlehisbook，whichappearedtenyearsbeforethe\"WealthofNations，\"
isknown，evenatthepresenttime，maybejudgedfromthefactthattheadmirersofMalthusdonotevenknowthatthefirsteditionofthelatter’sworkonpopulationcontains，exceptinthepurelydeclamatorypart，verylittlebutextractsfromSteuart，andinalessdegree，fromWallaceandTownsend。
[28]\"Thereisacertaindensityofpopulationwhichisconvenient，bothforsocialintercourse，andforthatcombinationofpowersbywhichtheproduceoflabourisincreased。\"（JamesMill，l。c。，p。50。）\"Asthenumberoflabourersincreases，theproductivepowerofsocietyaugmentsinthecompoundratioofthatincrease，multipliedbytheeffectsofthedivisionoflabour。\"
（Th。Hodgskin，l。c。，pp。125，126。）
[29]Inconsequenceofthegreatdemandforcottonafter1861，theproductionofcotton，insomethicklypopulateddistrictsofIndia，wasextendedattheexpenseofricecultivation。Inconsequencetherearoselocalfamines，thedefectivemeansofcommunicationnotpermittingthefailureofriceinonedistricttobecompensatedbyimportationfromanother。
[30]Thusthefabricationofshuttlesformedasearlyasthe17thcentury，aspecialbranchofindustryinHolland。
[31]WhetherthewoollenmanufactureofEnglandisnotdividedintoseveralpartsorbranchesappropriatedtoparticularplaces，wheretheyareonlyorprincipallymanufactured;fineclothsinSomersetshire，coarseinYorkshire，longellsatExeter，soiesatSudbury，crapesatNorwich，linseysatKendal，blanketsatWhitney，andsoforth。\"（Berkeley:\"TheQuerist，\"1751，§
520。）
[32]A。Ferguson:\"HistoryofCivilSociety。\"Edinburgh，1767;Partiv，sect。
ii。，p。285。
[33]Inmanufactureproper，hesays，thedivisionoflabourappearstobegreater，because\"thoseemployedineverydifferentbranchoftheworkcanoftenbecollectedintothesameworkhouse，andplacedatonceundertheviewofthespectator。Inthosegreatmanufactures，（！）onthecontrary，whicharedestinedtosupplythegreatwantsofthegreatbodyofthepeople，everydifferentbranchoftheworkemployssogreatanumberofworkmen，thatitisimpossibletocollectthemallintothesameworkhouse……thedivisionisnotnearsoobvious。\"（A。Smith:\"WealthofNations，\"bk。i，ch。i。）Thecelebratedpassageinthesamechapterthatbeginswiththewords，\"Observetheaccommodationofthemostcommonartificerorday—labourerinacivilisedandthrivingcountry，\"&c。，andthenproceedstodepictwhatanenormousnumberandvarietyofindustriescontributetothesatisfactionofthewantsofanordinarylabourer，iscopiedalmostwordforwordfromB。deMandeville’sRemarkstohis\"FableoftheBees，orPrivateVices，PublickBenefits。\"（Firsted。，withouttheremarks，1706;withtheremarks，1714。）
[34]\"Thereisnolongeranythingwhichwecancallthenaturalrewardofindividuallabour。Eachlabourerproducesonlysomepartofawhole，andeachpart，havingnovalueorutilityinitself，thereisnothingonwhichthelabourercanseize，andsay:Itismyproduct，thisIwillkeeptomyself。\"（\"LabourDefendedagainsttheClaimsofCapital。\"Lond。，1825，p。25。）TheauthorofthisadmirableworkistheTh。HodgskinIhavealreadycited。
[35]Thisdistinctionbetweendivisionoflabourinsocietyandinmanufacture，waspracticallyillustratedtotheYankees。OneofthenewtaxesdevisedatWashingtonduringthecivilwar，wasthedutyof6%\"onallindustrialproducts。\"Question:Whatisanindustrialproduct？Answerofthelegislature:
Athingisproduced\"whenitismade，\"anditismadewhenitisreadyforsale。Now，foroneexampleoutofmany。TheNewYorkandPhiladelphiamanufacturershadpreviouslybeeninthehabitof\"making\"umbrellaswithalltheirbelongings。Butsinceanumbrellaisamixtumcompositumofveryheterogeneousparts，bydegreesthesepartsbecametheproductsofvariousseparateindustries，carriedonindependentlyindifferentplaces。
Theyenteredasseparatecommoditiesintotheumbrellamanufactory，wheretheywerefittedtogether。TheYankeeshavegiventoarticlesthusfittedtogether，thenameof\"assembledarticles，\"anametheydeserve，forbeinganassemblageoftaxes。Thustheumbrella\"assembles，\"first，6%onthepriceofeachofitselements，andafurther6%onitsowntotalprice。
[36]\"Onpeut……établirenrèglegénérale，quemoinsl’autoritéprésideàladivisiondutravaildansl’intérieurdelasociété，plusladivisiondutravailsedéveloppedansl’intérieurdel’atelier，etpluselleyestsoumiseàI’autoritéd’unseul。AinsiI’autorité
dansl’atelieretcelledanslasociété，parrapportà
ladivisiondutravail，sontenraisoninversel’unedeI’autre。\"（KarlMarx，\"Misère，\"&c。，pp。130—131。）
[37]Lieut。—Col。MarkWilks:\"HistoricalSketchesoftheSouthofIndia。\"Lond。，1810—17，v。I。，pp。118—20。AgooddescriptionofthevariousformsoftheIndiancommunitiesistobefoundinGeorgeCampbell’s\"ModernIndia。\"
Lond。，1852。
[38]\"Underthissimpleform……theinhabitantsofthecountryhavelivedfromtimeimmemorial。Theboundariesofthevillageshavebeenbutseldomaltered;
andthoughthevillagesthemselveshavebeensometimesinjured，andevendesolatedbywar，famine，anddisease，thesamename，thesamelimits，thesameinterests，andeventhesamefamilies，havecontinuedforages。
Theinhabitantsgivethemselvesnotroubleaboutthebreakingupanddivisionofkingdoms;whilethevillageremainsentire，theycarenottowhatpoweritistransferred，ortowhatsovereignitdevolves;itsInternaleconomyremainsunchanged。\"（Th。StamfordRaffles，lateLieut。Gov。ofJava:\"TheHistoryofJava。\"Lond。，1817，Vol。I。，p。285。）