Weproceedupontheassumptionthatspinningissimple，unskilledlabour，theaveragelabourofagivenstateofsociety。Hereafterweshallseethatthecontraryassumptionwouldmakenodifference。
Whilethelabourerisatwork，hislabourconstantlyundergoesatransformation:
frombeingmotion，itbecomesanobjectwithoutmotion;frombeingthelabourerworking，itbecomesthethingproduced。Attheendofonehour’sspinning，thatactisrepresentedbyadefinitequantityofyarn;inotherwords，adefinitequantityoflabour，namelythatofonehour，hasbecomeembodiedinthecotton。Wesaylabour，i。e。，theexpenditureofhisvitalforcebythespinner，andnotspinninglabour，becausethespecialworkofspinningcountshere，onlysofarasitistheexpenditureoflabour—poweringeneral，andnotinsofarasitisthespecificworkofthespinner。
Intheprocesswearenowconsideringitisofextremeimportance，thatnomoretimebeconsumedintheworkoftransformingthecottonintoyarnthanisnecessaryunderthegivensocialconditions。Ifundernormal，i。e。，averagesocialconditionsofproduction，apoundsofcottonoughttobemadeintobpoundsofyarnbyonehour’slabour，thenaday’slabourdoesnotcountas12hours’labourunless12apoundsofcottonhavebeenmadeinto12bpoundsofyarn;forinthecreationofvalue，thetimethatissociallynecessaryalonecounts。
Notonlythelabour，butalsotherawmaterialandtheproductnowappearinquiteanewlight，verydifferentfromthatinwhichweviewedtheminthelabour—processpureandsimple。Therawmaterialservesnowmerelyasanabsorbentofadefinitequantityoflabour。Bythisabsorptionitisinfactchangedintoyarn，becauseitisspun，becauselabour—powerintheformofspinningisaddedtoit;buttheproduct，theyarn，isnownothingmorethanameasureofthelabourabsorbedbythecotton。Ifinonehour12/3lbs。ofcottoncanbespuninto12/3lbs。ofyarn，then10lbs。ofyarnindicatetheabsorptionof6hours’labour。Definitequantitiesofproduct，thesequantitiesbeingdeterminedbyexperience，nowrepresentnothingbutdefinitequantitiesoflabour，definitemassesofcrystallisedlabour—time。Theyarenothingmorethanthematerialisationofsomanyhoursorsomanydaysofsociallabour。
Weareherenomoreconcernedaboutthefacts，thatthelabouristhespecificworkofspinning，thatitssubjectiscottonanditsproductyarn，thanweareaboutthefactthatthesubjectitselfisalreadyaproductandthereforerawmaterial。Ifthespinner，insteadofspinning，wereworkinginacoalmine，thesubjectofhislabour，thecoal，wouldbesuppliedbyNature;nevertheless，adefinitequantityofextractedcoal，ahundredweightforexample，wouldrepresentadefinitequantityofabsorbedlabour。
Weassumed，ontheoccasionofitssale，thatthevalueofaday’slabour—poweristhreeshillings，andthatsixhours’labourisincorporatedinthatsum;andconsequentlythatthisamountoflabourisrequisitetoproducethenecessariesoflifedailyrequiredonanaveragebythelabourer。Ifnowourspinnerbyworkingforonehour，canconvert12/3lbs。ofcottoninto12/3lbs。ofyarn，[12]itfollowsthatinsixhourshewillconvert10lbs。ofcottoninto10
lbs。ofyarn。Hence，duringthespinningprocess，thecottonabsorbssixhours’labour。Thesamequantityoflabourisalsoembodiedinapieceofgoldofthevalueofthreeshillings。Consequentlybythemerelabourofspinning，avalueofthreeshillingsisaddedtothecotton。
Letusnowconsiderthetotalvalueoftheproduct，the10lbs。ofyarn。
Twoandahalfdays’labourhasbeenembodiedinit，ofwhichtwodayswerecontainedinthecottonandinthesubstanceofthespindlewornaway，andhalfadaywasabsorbedduringtheprocessofspinning。Thistwoandahalfdays’labourisalsorepresentedbyapieceofgoldofthevalueoffifteenshillings。Hence，fifteenshillingsisanadequatepriceforthe10lbs。ofyarn，orthepriceofonepoundiseighteenpence。
Ourcapitaliststaresinastonishment。ThevalueoftheproductisexactlyequaItothevalueofthecapitaladvanced。Thevaluesoadvancedhasnotexpanded，nosurplus—valuehasbeencreated，andconsequentlymoneyhasnotbeenconvertedintocapital。Thepriceoftheyarnisfifteenshillings，andfifteenshillingswerespentintheopenmarketupontheconstituentelementsoftheproduct，or，whatamountstothesamething，uponthefactorsofthelabour—process;tenshillingswerepaidforthecotton，twoshillingsforthesubstanceofthespindlewornaway，andthreeshillingsforthelabour—power。Theswollenvalueoftheyarnisofnoavail，foritismerelythesumofthevaluesformerlyexistinginthecotton，thespindle，andthelabour—power:outofsuchasimpleadditionofexistingvalues，nosurplus—valuecanpossiblyarise。[13]Theseseparatevaluesarenowallconcentratedinonething;butsotheywerealsointhesumoffifteenshillings，beforeitwassplitupintothreeparts，bythepurchaseofthecommodities。
Thereisinrealitynothingverystrangeinthisresult。Thevalueofonepoundofyarnbeingeighteenpence，ifourcapitalistbuys10lbs。ofyarninthemarket，hemustpayfifteenshillingsforthem。Itisclearthat，whetheramanbuyshishousereadybuilt，orgetsitbuiltforhim，inneithercasewillthemodeofacquisitionincreasetheamountofmoneylaidoutonthehouse。
Ourcapitalist，whoisathomeinhisvulgareconomy，exclaims:\"Oh！
butIadvancedmymoneyfortheexpresspurposeofmakingmoremoney。\"ThewaytoHellispavedwithgoodintentions，andhemightjustaseasilyhaveintendedtomakemoney，withoutproducingatall。[14]Hethreatensallsortsofthings。Hewon’tbecaughtnappingagain。Infuturehewillbuythecommoditiesinthemarket，insteadofmanufacturingthemhimself。Butifallhisbrothercapitalistsweretodothesame，wherewouldhefindhiscommoditiesinthemarket？Andhismoneyhecannoteat。
Hetriespersuasion。\"Considermyabstinence;Imighthaveplayedducksanddrakeswiththe15shillings;butinsteadofthatIconsumeditproductively，andmadeyarnwithit。\"Verywell，andbywayofrewardheisnowinpossessionofgoodyarninsteadofabadconscience;andasforplayingthepartofamiser，itwouldneverdoforhimtorelapseintosuchbadwaysasthat;wehaveseenbeforetowhatresultssuchasceticismleads。
Besides，wherenothingis，thekinghaslosthisrights;whatevermaybethemeritofhisabstinence，thereisnothingwherewithspeciallytoremunerateit，becausethevalueoftheproductismerelythesumofthevaluesofthecommoditiesthatwerethrownintotheprocessofproduction。Lethimthereforeconsole’himselfwiththereflectionthatvirtueisitsownreward，Butno，hebecomesimportunate。Hesays:\"Theyarnisofnousetome:
Iproduceditforsale。\"Inthatcaselethimsellit，or，stillbetter，lethimforthefutureproduceonlythingsforsatisfyinghispersonalwants，aremedythathisphysicianMacCullochhasalreadyprescribedasinfallibleagainstanepidemicofover—production。Henowgetsobstinate。\"Canthelabourer，\"
heasks，\"merelywithhisarmsandlegs，producecommoditiesoutofnothing？
DidInotsupplyhimwiththematerials，bymeansofwhich，andinwhichalone，hislabourcouldbeembodied？Andasthegreaterpartofsocietyconsistsofsuchne’er—do—wells，haveInotrenderedsocietyincalculableservicebymyinstrumentsofproduction，mycottonandmyspindle，andnotonlysociety，butthelaboureralso，whominadditionIhaveprovidedwiththenecessariesoflife？AndamItobeallowednothinginreturnforallthisservice？\"Well，buthasnotthelabourerrenderedhimtheequivalentserviceofchanginghiscottonandspindleintoyarn？Moreover，thereisherenoquestionofservice。[15]Aserviceisnothingmorethantheusefuleffectofause—value，beitofacommodity，orbeitoflabour。[16]Butherewearedealingwithexchange—value。Thecapitalistpaidtothelaboureravalueof3shillings，andthelabourergavehimbackanexactequivalentinthevalueof3shillings，addedbyhimtothecotton:hegavehimvalueforvalue。Ourfriend，uptothistimesopurse—proud，suddenlyassumesthemodestdemeanourofhisownworkman，andexclaims:\"HaveImyselfnotworked？HaveInotperformedthelabourofsuperintendenceandofoverlookingthespinner？Anddoesnotthislabour，too，createvalue？\"Hisoverlookerandhismanagertrytohidetheirsmiles。Meanwhile，afteraheartylaugh，here—assumeshisusualmien。Thoughhechantedtousthewholecreedoftheeconomists，inreality，hesays，hewouldnotgiveabrassfarthingforit。HeleavesthisandallsuchlikesubterfugesandjugglingtrickstotheprofessorsofPoliticalEconomy，whoarepaidforit。Hehimselfisapracticalman;andthoughhedoesnotalwaysconsiderwhathesaysoutsidehisbusiness，yetinhisbusinessheknowswhatheisabout。
Letusexaminethemattermoreclosely。Thevalueofaday’slabour—poweramountsto3shillings，becauseonourassumptionhalfaday’slabourisembodiedinthatquantityoflabour—power，i。e。，becausethemeansofsubsistencethataredailyrequiredfortheproductionoflabour—power，costhalfaday’slabour。Butthepastlabourthatisembodiedinthelabour—power，andthelivinglabourthatitcancallintoaction;thedailycostofmaintainingit，anditsdailyexpenditureinwork，aretwototallydifferentthings。
Theformerdeterminestheexchange—valueofthelabour—power，thelatterisitsuse—value。Thefactthathalfaday’slabourisnecessarytokeepthelaboureraliveduring24hours，doesnotinanywaypreventhimfromworkingawholeday。Therefore，thevalueoflabour—power，andthevaluewhichthatlabour—powercreatesinthelabour—process，aretwoentirelydifferentmagnitudes;andthisdifferenceofthetwovalueswaswhatthecapitalisthadinview，whenhewaspurchasingthelabour—power。Theusefulqualitiesthatlabour—powerpossesses，andbyvirtueofwhichitmakesyarnorboots，weretohimnothingmorethanaconditiosinequanon;forinordertocreatevalue，labourmustbeexpendedinausefulmanner。Whatreallyinfluencedhimwasthespecificuse—valuewhichthiscommoditypossessesofbeingasourcenotonlyofvalue，butofmorevaluethanithasitself。Thisisthespecialservicethatthecapitalistexpectsfromlabour—power，andinthistransactionheactsinaccordancewiththe\"eternallaws\"oftheexchangeofcommodities。Theselleroflabour—power，likethesellerofanyothercommodity，realisesitsexchange—value，andpartswithitsuse—value。Hecannottaketheonewithoutgivingtheother。Theuse—valueoflabour—power，orinotherwords，labour，belongsjustaslittletoitsseller，astheuse—valueofoilafterithasbeensoldbelongstothedealerwhohassoldit。Theownerofthemoneyhaspaidthevalueofaday’slabour—power;
his，therefore，istheuseofitforaday;aday’slabourbelongstohim。
Thecircumstance，thatontheonehandthedailysustenanceoflabour—powercostsonlyhalfaday’slabour，whileontheotherhandtheverysamelabour—powercanworkduringawholeday，thatconsequentlythevaluewhichitsuseduringonedaycreates，isdoublewhathepaysforthatuse，thiscircumstanceis，withoutdoubt，apieceofgoodluckforthebuyer，butbynomeansaninjurytotheseller。
Ourcapitalistforesawthisstateofthings，andthatwasthecauseofhislaughter。Thelabourerthereforefinds，intheworkshop，themeansofproductionnecessaryforworking，notonlyduringsix，butduringtwelvehours。Justasduringthesixhours’processour10lbs。ofcottonabsorbedsixhours’labour，andbecame10lbs。ofyarn，sonow，20lbs。ofcottonwillabsorb12hours’labourandbechangedinto20lbs。ofyarn。Letusnowexaminetheproductofthisprolongedprocess。Thereisnowmaterialisedinthis20lbs。ofyarnthelabouroffivedays，ofwhichfourdaysareduetothecottonandtheloststeelofthespindle，theremainingdayhavingbeenabsorbedbythecottonduringthespinningprocess。
Expressedingold，thelabouroffivedaysisthirtyshillings。Thisisthereforethepriceofthe20lbs。ofyarn，giving，asbefore，eighteenpenceasthepriceofapound。Butthesumofthevaluesofthecommoditiesthatenteredintotheprocessamountsto27shillings。Thevalueoftheyarnis30shillings。Thereforethevalueoftheproductis1/9greaterthanthevalueadvancedforitsproduction;27shillingshavebeentransformedinto30shillings;asurplus—valueof3shillingshasbeencreated。Thetrickhasatlastsucceeded;moneyhasbeenconvertedintocapital。
Everyconditionoftheproblemissatisfied，whilethelawsthatregulatetheexchangeofcommodities，havebeeninnowayviolated。Equivalenthasbeenexchangedforequivalent。Forthecapitalistasbuyerpaidforeachcommodity，forthecotton，thespindleandthelabour—power，itsfullvalue。
Hethendidwhatisdonebyeverypurchaserofcommodities;heconsumedtheiruse—value。Theconsumptionofthelabour—power，whichwasalsotheprocessofproducingcommodities，resultedin20lbs。ofyarn，havingavalueof30shillings。Thecapitalist，formerlyabuyer，nowreturnstomarketasaseller，ofcommodities。Hesellshisyarnateighteenpenceapound，whichisitsexactvalue。Yetforallthathewithdraws3shillingsmorefromcirculationthanheoriginallythrewintoit。Thismetamorphosis，thisconversionofmoneyintocapital，takesplacebothwithinthesphereofcirculationandalsooutsideit;withinthecirculation，becauseconditionedbythepurchaseofthelabour—powerinthemarket;outsidethecirculation，becausewhatisdonewithinitisonlyastepping—stonetotheproductionofsurplus—value，aprocesswhichisentirelyconfinedtothesphereofproduction。Thus\"toutestpourlemieuxdanslemeflleurdesmondespossibles。\"
Byturninghismoneyintocommoditiesthatserveasthematerialelementsofanewproduct，andasfactorsinthelabour—process，byincorporatinglivinglabourwiththeirdeadsubstance，thecapitalistatthesametimeconvertsvalue，i。e。，past，materialised，anddeadlabourintocapital，intovaluebigwithvalue，alivemonsterthatisfruitfulandmultiplies。
Ifwenowcomparethetwoprocessesofproducingvalueandofcreatingsurplus—value，weseethatthelatterisnothingbutthecontinuationoftheformerbeyondadefinitepoint。Ifontheonehandtheprocessbenotcarriedbeyondthepoint，wherethevaluepaidbythecapitalistforthelabour—powerisreplacedbyanexactequivalent，itissimplyaprocessofproducingvalue;if，ontheotherhand，itbecontinuedbeyondthatpoint，itbecomesaprocessofcreatingsurplus—value。
Ifweproceedfurther，andcomparetheprocessofproducingvaluewiththelabour—process，pureandsimple，wefindthatthelatterconsistsoftheusefullabour，thework，thatproducesuse—values。Herewecontemplatethelabourasproducingaparticulararticle;weviewitunderitsqualitativeaspectalone，withregardtoitsendandaim。Butviewedasavalue—creatingprocess，thesamelabour—processpresentsitselfunderitsquantitativeaspectalone。Hereitisaquestionmerelyofthetimeoccupiedbythelabourerindoingthework;oftheperiodduringwhichthelabour—powerisusefullyexpended。Here，thecommoditiesthattakepartintheprocess，donotcountanylongerasnecessaryadjunctsoflabour—powerintheproductionofadefinite，usefulobject。Theycountmerelyasdepositoriesofsomuchabsorbedormaterialisedlabour;thatlabour，whetherpreviouslyembodiedinthemeansofproduction，orincorporatedinthemforthefirsttimeduringtheprocessbytheactionoflabour—power，countsineithercaseonlyaccordingtoitsduration;itamountstosomanyhoursordaysasthecasemaybe。
Moreover，onlysomuchofthetimespentintheproductionofanyarticleiscounted，as，underthegivensocialconditions，isnecessary。Theconsequencesofthisarevarious。Inthefirstplace，itbecomesnecessarythatthelabourshouldbecarriedonundernormalconditions。Ifaself—actingmuleistheimplementingeneraluseforspinning，itwouldbeabsurdtosupplythespinnerwithadistaffandspinningwheel。Thecottontoomustnotbesuchrubbishastocauseextrawasteinbeingworked，butmustbeofsuitablequality。Otherwisethespinnerwouldbefoundtospendmoretimeinproducingapoundofyarnthanissociallynecessary，inwhichcasetheexcessoftimewouldcreateneithervaluenormoney。Butwhetherthematerialfactorsoftheprocessareofnormalqualityornot，dependsnotuponthelabourer，butentirelyuponthecapitalist。
Thenagain，thelabour—poweritselfmustbeofaverageefficacy。Inthetradeinwhichitisbeingemployed，itmustpossesstheaverageskill，handinessandquicknessprevalentinthattrade，andourcapitalisttookgoodcaretobuylabour—powerofsuchnormalgoodness。Thispowermustbeappliedwiththeaverageamountofexertionandwiththeusualdegreeofintensity;andthecapitalistisascarefultoseethatthisisdone，asthathisworkmenarenotidleforasinglemoment。Hehasbought，theuseofthelabour—powerforadefiniteperiod，andheinsistsuponhisrights。Hehasnointentionofbeingrobbed。Lastly，andforthispurposeourfriendhasapenalcodeofhisown，allwastefulconsumptionofrawmaterialorinstrumentsoflabourisstrictlyforbidden，becausewhatissowasted，representslaboursuperfluouslyexpended，labourthatdoesnotcountintheproductorenterintoitsvalue。[17]
Wenowsee，thatthedifferencebetweenlabour，consideredontheonehandasproducingutilities，andontheotherhand，ascreatingvalue，adifferencewhichwediscoveredbyouranalysisofacommodity，resolvesitselfintoadistinctionbetweentwoaspectsoftheprocessofproduction。
Theprocessofproduction，consideredontheonehandastheunityofthelabour—processandtheprocessofcreatingvalue，isproductionofcommodities;consideredontheotherhandastheunityofthelabour—processandtheprocessofproducingsurplus—value，itisthecapitalistprocessofproduction，orcapitalistproductionofcommodities。
Westated，onapreviouspage，thatinthecreationofsurplus—valueitdoesnotintheleastmatter，whetherthelabourappropriatedbythecapitalistbesimpleunskilledlabourofaveragequalityormorecomplicatedskilledlabour。Alllabourofahigherormorecomplicatedcharacterthanaveragelabourisexpenditureoflabour—powerofamorecostlykind，labour—powerwhoseproductionhascostmoretimeandlabour，andwhichthereforehasahighervalue，thanunskilledorsimplelabour—power。
Thispowerbeinghigher—value，itsconsumptionislabourofahigherclass，labourthatcreatesinequaltimesproportionallyhighervaluesthanunskilledlabourdoes。Whateverdifferenceinskilltheremaybebetweenthelabourofaspinnerandthatofajeweller，theportionofhislabourbywhichthejewellermerelyreplacesthevalueofhisownlabour—power，doesnotinanywaydifferinqualityfromtheadditionalportionbywhichhecreatessurplus—value。Inthemakingofjewellery，justasinspinning，thesurplus—valueresultsonlyfromaquantitativeexcessoflabour，fromalengthening—outofoneandthesamelabour—process，intheonecase，oftheprocessofmakingjewels，intheotheroftheprocessofmakingyarn。[18]
Butontheotherhand，ineveryprocessofcreatingvalue，thereductionofskilledlabourtoaveragesociallabour，e。g。，onedayofskilledtosixdaysofunskilledlabour，isunavoidable。[19]Wethereforesaveourselvesasuperfluousoperation，andsimplifyouranalysis，bytheassumption，thatthelabouroftheworkmanemployedbythecapitalistisunskilledaveragelabour。
Footnotes[1]\"Theearth’sspontaneousproductionsbeinginsmallquantity，andquiteindependentofman，appear，asitwere，tobefurnishedbyNature，inthesamewayasasmallsumisgiventoayoungman，inordertoputhiminawayofindustry，andofmakinghisfortune。\"（JamesStueart:\"PrinciplesofPolit。Econ。\"edit。Dublin，1770，v。I，p。116。）
[2]\"Reasonisjustascunningassheispowerful。Hercunningconsistsprincipallyinhermediatingactivity，which，bycausingobjectstoactandre—actoneachotherinaccordancewiththeirownnature，inthisway，withoutanydirectinterferenceintheprocess，carriesoutreason’sintentions。\"
（Hegel:\"Enzyklopädie，ErsterTheil，DieLogik，\"Berlin，1840，p。
382。）
[3]Inhisotherwisemiserablework（\"ThéoriedeI’Econ。Polit。\"Paris，1815），Ganilhenumeratesinastrikingmannerinoppositiontothe\"Physiocrats\"
thelongseriesofpreviousprocessesnecessarybeforeagricultureproperlysocalledcancommence。
[4]Turgotinhis\"RéflexionssurlaFormationetlaDistributiondesRichesses\"（1766）bringswellintoprominencetheimportanceofdomesticatedanimalstoearlycivilisation。
[5]Theleastimportantcommoditiesofallforthetechnologicalcomparisonofdifferentepochsofproductionarearticlesofluxury，inthestrictmeaningoftheterm。Howeverlittleourwrittenhistoriesuptothistimenoticethedevelopmentofmaterialproduction，whichisthebasisofallsociallife，andthereforeofallrealhistory，yetprehistorictimeshavebeenclassifiedinaccordancewiththeresults，notofso—calledhistorical，butofmaterialisticinvestigations。Theseperiodshavebeendivided，tocorrespondwiththematerialsfromwhichtheirimplementsandweaponsweremade，viz。，intothestone，thebronze，andtheironages。
[6]Itappearsparadoxicaltoassert，thatuncaughtfish，forinstance，areameansofproductioninthefishingindustry。Buthithertonoonehasdiscoveredtheartofcatchingfishinwatersthatcontainnone。
[7]Thismethodofdetermining，fromthestandpointofthelabour—processalone，whatisproductivelabour，isbynomeansdirectlyapplicabletothecaseofthecapitalistprocessofproduction。
[8]Storchcallstruerawmaterials\"matières，\"andaccessorymaterial\"matériaux。\"Cherbuliezdescribesaccessoriesas\"matièresinstrumentales。\"
[9]Byawonderfulfcatoflogicalacumen，ColonelTorrenshasdiscovered，inthisstoneofthesavagetheoriginofcapital。\"Inthefirststonewhichhe[thesavage]flingsatthewildanimalhepursues，inthefirststickthatheseizestostrikedownthefruitwhichhangsabovehisreach，weseetheappropriationofonearticleforthepurposeofaidingintheacquisitionofanother，andthusdiscovertheoriginofcapital。\"（R。Torrens:
\"AnEssayontheProductionofWealth，\"&c。，pp。70—71。）
[10]\"Productsareappropriatedbeforetheyareconvertedintocapital;thisconversiondoesnotsecurethemfromsuchappropriation。\"（Cheibuliez:
\"RichesseonPauvreté，\"edit。Paris，1841，p。54。）\"TheProletarian，bysellinghislabourforadefinitequantityofthenecessariesoflife，renouncesallclaimtoashareintheproduct。Themodeofappropriationoftheproductsremainsthesameasbefore;itisinnowayalteredbythebargainwehavementioned。Theproductbelongsexclusivelytothecapitalist，whosuppliedtherawmaterialandthenecessariesoflife;andthisisarigorousconsequenceofthelawofappropriation，alawwhosefundamentalprinciplewastheveryopposite，namely，thateverylabourerhasanexclusiverighttotheownershipofwhatheproduces。\"（l。c。，p。58。）\"Whenthelabourersreceivewagesfortheirlabour……thecapitalististhentheownernotofthecapitalonly\"（hemeansthemeansofproduction）\"butofthelabouralso。Ifwhatispaidaswagesisincluded，asitcommonlyis，inthetermcapital，itisabsurdtotalkoflabourseparatelyfromcapital。Thewordcapitalasthusemployedincludeslabourandcapitalboth。\"（JamesMill:\"ElementsofPol。Econ。，\"&c。，Ed。1821，pp。70，71。）
[11]Ashasbeenstatedinapreviousnote，theEnglishlanguagehastwodifferentexpressionsforthesetwodifferentaspectsoflabour:intheSimpleLabour—process，theprocessofproducingUse—Values，itisWork;intheprocessofcreationofValue，itisLabour，takingtheterminitsstrictlyeconomicsense。？F。E。
[12]Thesefiguresarequitearbitrary。
[13]ThisisthefundamentalpropositiononwhichisbasedthedoctrineofthePhysiocratsastotheunproductivenessofalllabourthatisnotagriculture:
itisirrefutablefortheorthodoxeconomist。\"Cettefaçond’imputeràuneseulechoselavaleurdeplusieursautres\"（parexempleaulinlaconsommationdutisserand），\"d’appliquer，pourainsidire，couchesurcouche，plusieursvalcurssuruneseule，faitquecelle—cigrossitd’autant……Letermed’additionpeinttrés—bienlamanieredontseformeleprixdesouvragesdemaind’oeuvre;ceprixn’estqu’untotaldeplusieursvaleursconsomméesetadditionnéesensemble;
or，additionnern’estpasmultiplier。\"（\"MercierdelaRivière，\"
l。c。，p。599。）
[14]Thusfrom1844—47hewithdrewpartofhiscapitalfromproductiveemployment，inordertothrowitawayinrailwayspeculations;andsoalso，duringtheAmericanCivilWar，heclosedhisfactory，andturnedhiswork—peopleintothestreets，inordertogambleontheLiverpoolcottonexchange。
[15]\"Extolthyself，putonfineryandadornthyself……butwhoevertakesmoreorbetterthanhegives，thatisusury，andisnotservice，butwrongdonetohisneighbour，aswhenonestealsandrobs。Allisnotserviceandbenefittoaneighbourthatiscalledserviceandbenefit。Foranadulteressandadultererdooneanothergreatserviceandpleasure。Ahorsemandoesanincendiaryagreatservice，byhelpinghimtorobonthehighway，andpillagelandandhouses。Thepapistsdooursagreatservice，inthattheydon’tdrown，burn，murderallofthem，orletthemallrotinprison;butletsomelive，andonlydrivethemout，ortakefromthemwhattheyhave。Thedevilhimselfdoeshisservantsinestimableservice……Tosumup，theworldisfullofgreat，excellent，anddailyserviceandbenefit。\"（MartinLuther:\"AndiePfarrherrnwiderdenWucherzupredigen，\"Wittenberg，1540。）
[16]In\"ZurKritikderPol。Oek。，\"p。14，Imakethefollowingremarkonthispoint？\"Itisnotdifficulttounderstandwhat’service’thecategory’service’mustrendertoaclassofeconomistslikeJ。B。SayandF。Bastiat。\"
[17]Thisisoneofthecircumstancesthatmakesproductionbyslavelaboursuchacostlyprocess。Thelabourerhereis，touseastrikingexpressionoftheancients，distinguishableonlyasinstrumentumvocale，fromananimalasinstrumentumsemi—vocale，andfromanimplementasinstrumentummutum。
Buthehimselftakescaretoletbothbeastandimplementfeelthatheisnoneofthem，’butisaman。Heconvinceshimselfwithimmensesatisfaction，thatheisadifferentbeing，bytreatingtheoneunmercifullyanddamagingtheotherconamore。Hencetheprinciple，univeriallyappliedinthismethodofproduction，onlytoemploytherudestandheaviestimplementsandsuchasaredifficulttodamageowingtotheirsheerclumsiness。Intheslave—statcsborderingontheGulfofMexico，downtothedateofthecivilwar，ploughsconstructedonoldChinesemodels，whichturnedupthesoillikeahogoramole，insteadofmakingfurrows，werealonetobefound。Conf。J。
E。Cairnes。\"TheSlavePower，\"London，1862，p。46sqq。Inhis\"SeaBoardSlaveStates，\"Olmstedtellsus:\"Iamhereshowntoolsthatnomaninhissenses，withus，wouldallowalabourcr，forwhomhewaspayingwages，tobeencumberedwith;andtheexcessiveweightandclumsinessofwhich，Iwouldjudge，wouldmakeworkatleasttenpercentgreaterthanwiththoseordinarilyusedwithus。AndIamassuredthat，inthecarelessandclumsywaytheymustbeusedbytheslaves，anythinglighterorlessrudecouldnotbefumishedthemwithgoodeconomy，andthatsuchtoolsasweconstantlygiveourlabourersandfindourprofitingivingthem，wouldnotlastoutadayinaVirginiacomficid—muchlighterandmorefreefromstonesthoughitbethanours。So，too，whenIaskwhymulesaresouniversallysubstitutedforhorsesonthefarm，thefirstreasongiven，andconfessedlythemostconclusiveone，isthathorsescannotbearthetreatmentthattheyalwaysmustgetfromnegroes;horsesarealwayssoonfounderedorcrippledbythem，whilemuleswillbearcudgelling，orloseamealortwonowandthen，andnotbemateriallyinjured，andtheydonottakecoldorgetsick，ifneglectedoroverworked。ButIdonotneedtogofurtherthantothewindowoftheroominwhichIamwriting，toseeatalmostanytime，treatmentofcattlethatwouldensuretheimmediatedischargeofthedriverbyalmostanyfarmerowningthemintheNorth。\"
[18]Thedistinctionbetweenskilledandunskilledlabourrestsinpartonpureillusion，or，tosaytheleast，ondistinctionsthathavelongsinceceasedtobereal，andthatsurviveonlybyvirtueofatraditionalconvention;
inpartonthehelplessconditionofsomegroupsoftheworking—class，aconditionthatpreventsthemfromexactingequallywiththerestthevalueoftheirlabour—power。Accidentalcircumstanceshereplaysogreatapart，thatthesetwoformsoflaboursometimeschangeplaces。Where，forinstance，thephysiqueoftheworking—classhasdeteriorated，andis，relativelyspeaking，exhausted，whichinthecaseinallcountrieswithawelldevelopedcapitalistproduction，thelowerformsoflabour，whichdemandgreatexpenditureofmuscle，areingeneralconsideredasskilled，comparedwithmuchmoredelicateformsoflabour;thelattersinkdowntothelevelofunskilledlabour。Takeasanexamplethelabourofabricklayer，whichinEnglandoccupiesamuchhigherlevelthanthatofadamask—weaver。Again，althoughthelabourofafustiancutterdemandsgreatbodilyexertion，andisatthesametimeunhealthy，yetitcountsonlyasunskilledlabour。Andthen，wemustnotforget，thattheso—calledskilledlabourdoesnotoccupyalargespaceinthefieldofnationallabour。LaingestimatesthatinEngland（andWales）thelivelihoodof11，300，000peopledependsonunskilledlabour。
Iffromthetotalpopulationof18，000，000livingatthetimewhenhewrote，wededuct1，000，000forthe\"genteelpopulation，\"and1，500，000forpaupers，vagrants，criminals，prostitutes，&c。，and4，650，000whocomposethemiddle—class，thereremaintheabovementioned11，000，000。Butinhismiddle—classheincludespeoplethatliveontheinterestofsmallinvestments，officials，menofletters，artists，schoolmastersandthelike，andinordertoswellthenumberhealsoincludesinthese4，650，000thebetterpaidportiotiofthefactoryoperatives！Thebricklayers，too，figureamongstthem。（S。
Laing:\"NationalDistress，\"&c。，London，1844）。\"Thegreatclasswhohavenothingtogiveforfoodbutordinarylabour，arethegreatbulkofthepeople。\"（JamesMill，inart。:\"Colony，\"SupplementtotheEncyclop。
Brit。，1831。）
[19]\"Wherereferenceismadetolabourasameasureofvalue，itnecessarilyimplieslabourofoneparticularkind……theproportionwhichtheotherkindsbeartoitbeingeasilyascertained。\"（\"OutlinesofPol。Econ。，\"
Lond。，1832，pp。22and23。）
ChapterEightKarlMarxCapitalVolumeOnePartIII:
TheProductionofAbsoluteSurplus—ValueCHAPTEREIGHT:
CONSTANTCAPITALANDVARIABLECAPITAL
Thevariousfactorsofthelabour—processplaydifferentpartsinformingthevalueoftheproduct。
Thelaboureraddsfreshvaluetothesubjectoffiislabourbyexpendinguponitagivenamountofadditionallabour，nomatterwhatthespecificcharacterandutilityofthatlabourmaybe。Ontheotherhand，thevaluesofthemeansofproductionusedupintheprocessarepreserved，andpresentthemselvesafreshasconstituentpartsofthevalueoftheproduct;thevaluesofthecottonandthespindle，forinstance，re—appearagaininthevalueoftheyarn。Thevalueofthemeansofproductionisthereforepreserved，bybeingtransferredtotheproduct。Thistransfertakesplaceduringtheconversionofthosemeansintoaproduct，orinotherwords，duringthelabour—process。Itisbroughtaboutbylabour;buthow？