19。AnearlierworkofP。delaCourt，theInteresevanHollandofteGrondenvanHollands—Welvaren（1662），wasmuch
readintheseventeenthcenturyThereisoneEnglishandthreeGermantranslationsofthisbook。
20。Bk。v，chap。i，art。3。
21。Smithsays，inalettertoPulteney（1772）——\"IhavethesameopinionofSirJamesSteuart’sbookthatyouhave。Without
oncementioningit，Iflattermyselfthatanyfalseprincipleinitwillmeetwithaclearanddistinctconfutationinmine。\"
22。\"WhenIrecollectwhatthePresidentMontesquieuhaswritten，IamatalosstotellwhyIshouldtreatofhumanaffairs;
butItooaminstigatedbymyreflectionsandmysentiments;andImayutterthemmoretothecomprehensionofordinary
capacities，becauseIammoreonthelevelofordinarymen……thereadershouldbereferredtowhathasbeenalready
deliveredonthesubjectbythisprofoundpoliticianandamiablemoralist\"（PartI，sect。10）。HumespeaksofMontesquieuas
an\"illustriouswriter，\"who\"hasestablished……asystemofpoliticalknowledge，whichaboundsiningeniousandbrilliant
thoughtsandisnotwantinginsolidity\"（PrinciplesofMorals，sect。3andnote）。
23。ThefollowingparagraphappearedinMoniteurUniverselofMarch11，1790:——\"OnprétendquelecélébreM。Smith，
connusiavantageusementparsontraitédescausesdelarichessedesnations，prépareetvamettrel’impressionunexamen
critiquede’EspritdesLois;c’estlerésultatdepleusiersannéesdeméditaion，etl’onsaitassezcequ’onadroitd’attendre
d’unetêtecommecelledeM。Smith。Celivreferaépoquedansl’histoiredelapolitiqueetdelaphilosophie，telestdumoins
lejugementqu’enportentdesgensinstruitsquienconnaissentdesfragmentsdontilsneparientqu’avecunenthousiasmedu
plusheureuxaugure。\"
24。Smithtakesnoaccountinthisplaceoftheevilswhichmayarisefromahighlydevelopeddivisionoflabour。ButseeBk。
v，chap。i。
25。Thissentence，whichoncloseexaminationwillbefoundtohavenodefiniteintelligiblesense，affordsagoodexampleof
thewayinwhichmetaphysicalmodesofthoughtobscureeconomicideas。Whatisa\"quantityoflabour，\"thekindoflabour
beingundetermined？Andwhatismeantbythephrase\"ofequalvalue\"？
26。Smith’sexpressionsonthispointarelax，aswillbeseenwhenwecometoexaminethe（so—called）Ricardiantheoryof
Rent。
27。Seep。110，onBentham。
28。Itmust，however，alwaysbeborneinmindthattheadoptionbyastateofthissortofprotectionisliabletothree
practicaldangers:——（1）ofencouragementbeingprocuredthroughpoliticalinfluencesforindustrieswhichcouldneverhave
anindependenthealthylifeinthecountry——（2）ofsuchencouragementbeingcontinuedbeyondthetermduringwhichit
mightbeusefullygiven;（3）ofaretaliatoryspiritofexclusionbeingprovokedinothercommunities。
29。ProfessorBastablecallstheauthor’sattentiontotheinterestingfactthattheproposalofanexportdutyonwoolandthe
justificationofatemporarymonopolytojoint—stockcompaniesbothappearforthefirsttimeinthethirdedition（1784）。
30。IntheIntroductoryEssaytohiseditionoftheWealthofNations。
31。\"Thepublicwillprobablysoonbefurnishedwithatheoryofnationaleconomy，equaltowhathaseverappearedonany
subjectofsciencewhatever。\"（PartIII，sect。4）。
32。FiveeditionsoftheWealthofNationsappearedduringthelifeoftheauthor:——thefirstin1776，Thesecondin1779，the
thirdin1784，thefourthin1786，andthefifthin1789。AfterthethirdeditionSmithmadenochangeinthetext。The
principaleditionscontainingmatteraddedbyothereconomistsarethosebyWilliamPlayfair，withnotes，1805;byDavid
Buchanan，withnotes，1814;byJ。R。M’Culloch，withlifeoftheauthor，introductorydiscourse，notes，andsupplemental
dssertations，1828（also，withnumerousadditions，1839;sincereprintedseveraltimeswithfurtheradditions）;bytheauthor
ofEnglandandAmerica（EdwardGibbonWakefield），withacommentarywhich，however，isnotcontinuedbeyondthe
secondbook，1835—9;byJamesE。ThoroldRogers，ProfessorofPoliticalEconomyatOxford，withbiographicalprefaceand
ausefulverificationofSmith’squotationandreferences，1869（2ded。，1880）——andbyJ。S。Nicholson，professorat
Edinburgh，withanIntroductoryEssay，andnotesreferringtosourcesoffurtherinformationonthevarioustopicshandled
inthetext，1884。ThereisacarefulAbridgmentbyWP。Emerton（2ded。，1881），foundedontheearlyAnalysisJeremiah
Joyce（3ded。，1821）。
33。Parl。Hist。，vol。xxxiii，p。778。
34。Itmustberemembered，however，thatthesamedoctrinehadbeensupportedwithnolessabilityasearlyas1769by
TurgotinhisMémoiresurlesprêtsd’argent。
35。Lettresd’A。ComteàJ。S。Mill，p。4。
36。InhisdiscourseattheSorbonne（1760），Surlesprogrèssuccessifsdel’esprithumain。
37。Theirdatesare1806，1807，1816，1817，1826。
38。OnthissubjectseethespeculationsofHerbertSpencerinhisPrincipleofBiology，PartVI，chaps。xii，xiii。
39。Malthushimselfsaid:——\"Itisprobablethat，havingfoundthebowbenttoomuchoneway，Iwasinducedtobendittoo
muchtheotherinordertomakeitstraight。\"
40。TheEssayonPopulationandtheInquiryintotheNatureandProgressofRent（1815），tobehereaftermentioned，are
byfarthemostimportantcontributionsofMalthustothescience。HewasalsoauthorofPrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy（1820）。DefinitionsinPoliticalEconomy（1827），andotherminorpieces。OntheselessimportantwritingsofMalthus，and
onhispersonalhistory，seeMalthusandhisWork（1885），byJamesBonar，whohasalsoedited（1888）theLettersof
RicardotoMalthus。
41。\"Politicaleconomy，youthink，isininquiryintothenatureandcausesofwealth;Ithinkitshouldratherbecalledan
inquiryintothelawsthatdeterminethedivisionoftheproduceofindustryamongsttheclasseswhoconcurinitsformation。\"
——LettersofRicardotoMalthus，ed。byJ。Bonar（1889）。
42。Anderson’saccountoftheoriginofrentisreprintedintheSelectCollectionofScarceandValuableEconomicalTracts，
editedforLordOverstonebyJ。R。M’Culloch，1859。
43。Senior，however，haspointedoutthatSmithispartlyright;whilstitistruethatrentisdemandedbecausetheproductive
powersofnaturearelimited，andincreasedpopulationrequiresalessremunerativeexpenditureinordertoobtainthe
necessarysupply;ontheotherhand，itisthepowerwhichmostlandpossessesofproducingthesubsistanceofmorepersons
thanartrequiredforitscultivationthatsuppliesthefundoutofwhichrentcanbepaid。
44。\"Asthecolonyincreases，theprofitsofstockgraduallydiminish。Whenthemostfertileandbestsituatedlandshavebeen
alloccupied，lessprofitcanbemadebythecultivationofwhatisinferiorbothinsoilandsituation，andlessinterestcanbe
affordedforthestockwhichissoemployed。\"TheviewinquestionhadbeenanticipatedbyWest。
45。AdamSmithsays:——\"Itappearsevidentlyfromexperiencethatmanis，ofallsortsofluggage，themostdifficulttobe
transported\"（WealthofNations。Bk。I，chap。viii）。
46。Tenant’sGainnotLandlord’sLoss（1883），p。83。
47。ZweiBücherzurSocialenGeschichteEnglands，p。194。
48。AsketchofRicardo’spersonalhistory，andanaccountofhiswritingsonmonetaryquestions，whichcouldnot
convenientlybeintroducedherewillbefoundunderhisnameintheEncyclopaediaBritannica，9thedition。
49。Thus，inWealthofNations，Bk。I，chap。vii，wehavethephrase\"thefundswhicharedestinedtothepaymentofwages，\"
\"thefundsdestinedforemployingindustry\"\"thefundsdestinedforthemaintenanceofservants\"
50。SeethelastofhisFourIntroductoryLecturesonPolitical;Economy，1852。
51。Mill，however，tellsusinhisPrefacetothoseEssaysthathisownviewsonthatsubjecthadbeenentertainedand
committedtowritingbeforethepublicationbyTorrensofsimilaropinions。
52。SamuelCrumpe，M。D。，hadpublishedatDublinin1793anEssayontheBestMeansofProvidingEmploymentforthe
People，whichobtainedaprizeofferedbytheRoyalIrishAcademyforthebestdissertationonthatsubject。Thisisa
meritoriouswork，andcontainsagoodstatementofsomeoftheleadingprinciplesofAdamSmith。JohnHelyHutchinson’sCommercialRestraintsofIreland（1779）isimportantfortheeconomichistoryofthatcountry。
53。AfterwardsLordAshburton。ForthisPetition，seeM’Culloch’sLiteratureofPoliticalEconomy，p。57，orSenior’sLecturesontheTransmissionofthePreciousMetals，etc。，2ded。，p。78。
54。Curiously，inanotherwisewell—executedabridgmentofMill’sworkpublishedintheUnitedStates（1886）byJ。Laurence
Laughlin，asatextbooktorcolleges，allthat\"shouldproperlybeclassedundertheheadofSociology\"hasbeenomitted，
Mill’sownconceptionbeingthussetaside，andhisbookmadetoconformtothecommontype。
55。MrJohnMorley（\"MillonReligion\"，inCriticalMiscellanies，2dser，1877）betrayssomethingconsternationatfinding
inMill’sposthumouswritingsstatementsofopiniondistinctlyatvariancewithphilosophicdoctrineshehadenergetically
maintainedduringhiswholelife。
56。SeealsohisChaptersonSocialism，inFortnightlyReview，1879
57。Economistsarefondofcomparingtherateofprofitorwagesinonenation（usingthiswordinitseconomicsense）toa
singlefluidsurfacewhichiscontinuallydisturbedbytransientinfluencesandcontinuallytendingtorecoveritslevel。We
mustcomparetheseratesindifferentnationstoreservoirswhich，notcommunicatingwitheachother，standalwaysat
different，thoughvariable，levels。Andthelattercomparisonwillapplyalsototherates（alleastofwages）indifferent
economic\"groups\"，orstrata，withinthesamecommunity。
58。Seep。139。
59。Jevonsstrangelysays，inthePrefacetohisTheoryofPoliticalEconomy，2d。ed。，thatthewagesfunddoctrine\"has
beenabandonedbymostEnglisheconomistsowingtotheattacks，\"amongstothers。\"OfCairnes。\"Cairneswas，intruth，a
supporterofthedoctrine。
60。InhisEssayonthePrincipleofCommercialExchanges。
61。OnthiswholesubjectseeProfessorC。F。Bastable’sTheoryofInternationalTrade，1887。
62。ThefirstFrenchtranslationoftheWealthofNations，byBlavet，appearedintheJournaldel’Agriculture，du
Commerce，desFinances，etdesArts，1779—80;neweditionsofitwerepublishedin1781，1788，and1800;itwasalso
printedatAmsterdamin1784。Smithhimselfrecommendeditinhisthirdeditionoftheoriginalasexcellent。In1790
appearedthetranslationbyRoucher，towhichCondorcethadintendedtoaddnotes，andin1802thatbyCountGermain
Garnier，executedduringhisexileinEnglandwhichisnowconsideredthestandardversion，andhasbeenreproduced，with
notesbySay，Sismondi，Blanqui，etc。，intheCollectiondesPrinicipauxEconomistes。
63。HegrosslyexaggeratedSmith’sfaultsofmethod。ThushesaysL’ouvragedeSmithn’estqu’unassemblageconfusdes
principeslesplussainsdel’Economiepolitique……sonlivreestunvastechaosd’idéesjustes—（DiscoursPréliminaire）。
64。TheFrencheconomistsarecontinuedonpage175。
65。Hamilton’sWorks，editedbyH。C。Lodge，vol。iii，p;294。
66。Itis，however，amistaketosupposethattheassumptionofthishistoricalorderofdescentisessentialtothetheoryin
question。
67。ThisargumentseemsscarcelymetbyProfessorF。A。Walker，PoliticalEconomy，5052。Butperhapsheisrightin
thinkingthatCareyexaggeratestheimportanceoftheconsiderationsonwhichitisfounded。MillandLeslieremarkthatthe
transportationofagriculturalproductsfromthewesterntotheAtlanticStateshasthesameeffectastheirexporttoEurope，
sofarasthisso—called\"land—butchery\"isconcerned;besidessomemanuresareobtainablefromabroad。
68。OtherwritingsofCarey’sbesideshisSocialSciencearehisEssayontheRateofWages（1835）;PrinciplesofPolitical
Economy（18381840）Past，Present，andFuture（1848）UnityofLaw（1872）。
69。CharlesComte（17821837）wasson—in—lawofJ。B。Say。HewasassociatedwithDunoyerinhispoliticalwritingsand，
likehim，distinguishedforhishonourableindependence。HewasauthoroftheTraitédeLégislation，ameritoriousand
useful，butnotaprofoundwork。
70。M。Leroy—Beaulieumaintains（EssaisurlaRépartitiondesRichesses，2ded。，1882）thatthis，thoughnotstrictly，is
approximatelytruethateconomicformsaverysmallpartofactualrent。
71。EssaysinPoliticalEconomy，p。334。
72。HermannHeinrichGossen’swork，EntwickelungderGesetzedesnutsschlichanVerkehrs，sohighlypraisedbyJevons，TheoryofPol。Econ。，2ded。，Pref。，waspublishedin1854。
73。ThefirstGermanversionoftheWealthofNationswasthatbyJohannFriedrichSchiller，published177678。The
second，whichisthefirstgoodone，wasbyChnstianGarveandagain1799and1810）。AlateronebyC。W。Asher（1861）is
highlycommended。
CHAPTERVI
THEHISTORICALSCHOOL
Thenegativemovementwhichfilledtheeighteenthcenturyhadforitswatchwordontheeconomicsidetheliberationof
industrialeffortfrombothfeudalsurvivalsandGovernmentalfetters。Butinalltheaspectsofthatmovement，theeconomic
aswellastherest，theprocessofdemolitionwashistoricallyonlythenecessarypreliminaryconditionofatotalrenovation
towardswhichWesternEuropewasenergeticallytending，thoughwithbutanindistinctconceptionofitsprecisenature。The
disorganizationofthebodyofopinionwhichunderlaytheoldsystemoutrantheprogresstowardstheestablishmentofnew
principlesadequatetoformaguidanceinthefuture。Thecriticalphilosophywhichhadwroughtthedisorganizationcould
onlyrepeatitsformulasofabsoluteliberty，butwaspowerlessforreconstruction。Andhencetherewasseenthroughoutthe
West，aftertheFrenchexplosion，theremarkablespectacleofacontinuousoscillationbetweenthetendencytorecurto
outwornideasandavagueimpulsetowardsaneworderinsocialthoughtandlife，thisimpulseoftentakingananarchical
character。
Fromthisstateofoscillation，whichhasgiventothe19thcenturyitsequivocalandtransitionalaspect，theonlypossible
issuewasinthefoundationofascientificsocialdoctrinewhichshouldsupplyabasisforthegradualconvergenceofopinion
onhumanquestions。ThefoundationofsuchadoctrineistheimmortalserviceforwhichtheworldisindebtedtoAuguste
Comte（17981857）。
TheleadingfeaturesofSociology，asheconceivedit，arethefollowing:（1）itisessentiallyonescience，inwhichallthe
elementsofasocialstatearestudiedintheirrelationsandmutualactions;（2）itincludesadynamicalaswellasastatical
theoryofsociety;（3）itthuseliminatestheabsolute，substitutingforanimaginedfixitytheconceptionoforderedchange;（4）
itsprincipalmethod，thoughothersarenotexcluded，isthatofhistoricalcomparison;（5）itispervadedbymoralideas，by
notionsofsocialduty，asopposedtotheindividualrightswhichwerederivedascorollariesfromthejusnaturae;and（6）in
itsspiritandpracticalconsequencesittendstotherealisationofallthegreatendswhichcompose\"thepopularcause\";yet
（7）itaimsatthisthroughpeacefulmeans，replacingrevolutionbyevolution。（1）Theseveralcharacteristicswehave
enumeratedarenotindependent;theymaybeshowntobevitallyconnectedwitheachother。Severalofthesefeaturesmust
nowbemorefullydescribed;theotherswillmeetusbeforethecloseofthepresentsurvey。
InthemasterlyexpositionofsociologicalmethodwhichiscontainedinthefourthvolumeofthePhilosophiePositive（1839），（2）Comtemarksoutthebroaddivisionbetweensocialstaticsandsocialdynamicstheformerstudyingthelawsof
socialcoexistence，thelatterthoseofsocialdevelopment。Thefundamentalprincipleoftheformeristhegeneralconsensus
betweentheseveralsocialorgansandfunctions，which，withoutundulypressingausefulanalogy，wemayregardas
resemblingthatwhichexistsbetweentheseveralorgansandfunctionsofananimalbody。Thestudyofdynamicalisdifferent
from，andnecessarilysubordinatedto，thatofstaticalsociology，progressbeinginfactthedevelopmentoforder，justasthe
studyofevolutioninbiologyisdifferentfrom，andsubordinatedto，thatofthestructuresandfunctionswhichareexhibited
byevolutionastheyexistattheseveralpointsofanascendingscale。Thelawsofsocialcoexistenceandmovementareas
muchsubjectsforobservationasthecorrespondingphenomenainthelifeofanindividualorganism。Forthestudyof
developmentinparticular，amodificationofthecomparativemethodfamiliartobiologistswillbetheappropriatemodeof
research。Theseveralsuccessivestagesofsocietywillhavetobesystematicallycompared，inordertodiscovertheirlawsof
sequence，andtodeterminethefiliationoftheircharacteristicfeatures。
Thoughwemusttakecarethatbothinourstaticalanddynamicalstudieswedonotignoreorcontradictthefundamental
propertiesofhumannature，theprojectofdeducingeitherspeciesoflawsfromthosepropertiesindependentlyofdirect
observationisonewhichcannotberealised。Neitherthegeneralstructureofhumansocietynorthemarchofitsdevelopment
couldbesopredicted。Thisisespeciallyevidentwithrespecttodynamicallaws，because，inthepassageofsocietyfromone
phasetoanother，thepreponderatingagencyistheaccumulatedinfluenceofpastgenerations，whichismuchtoocomplexto
beinvestigateddeductivelyaconclusionwhichitisimportanttokeepsteadilybeforeusnowthatsomeofthe（so—called）
anthropologistsareseekingtomakethescienceofsocietyamereannexandderivativeofbiology。Theprinciplesofbiology
unquestionablylieatthefoundationofthesocialscience，butthelatterhas，andmustalwayshave，afieldofresearchanda
methodofinquirypeculiartoitself。Thefieldishistoryinthelargestsense，includingcontemporaryfact;andtheprincipal，
thoughnotexclusive，methodis，aswehavesaid，thatprocessofsociologicalcomparisonwhichismostconvenientlycalled
\"thehistoricalmethod。\"
Thesegeneralprinciplesaffecttheeconomicnolessthanotherbranchesofsocialspeculation;andwithrespecttothat
departmentofinquirytheyleadtoimportantresults。Theyshowthattheideaofformingatruetheoryoftheeconomicframe
andworkingofsocietyapartfromitsothersidesisillusory。Suchstudyisindeedprovisionallyindispensable，butnorational
theoryoftheeconomicorgansandfunctionsofsocietycanbeconstructediftheyareconsideredasisolatedfromtherest。In
otherwords，aseparateeconomicscienceis，strictlyspeaking，animpossibility，asrepresentingonlyoneportionofa
complexorganism，allwhosepartsandtheiractionsareinaconstantrelationofcorrespondenceandreciprocalmodification。
Hence，too，itwillfollowthat，whateverusefulindicationsmaybederivedfromourgeneralknowledgeofindividualhuman
nature，theeconomicstructureofsocietyanditsmodeofdevelopmentcannotbedeductivelyforeseen，butmustbe
ascertainedbydirecthistoricalinvestigation。Wehavesaid\"itsmodeofdevelopment\";foritisobviousthat，asofevery
socialelement，sooftheeconomicfactorinhumanaffairs，theremustbeadynamicaldoctrine，atheoryofthesuccessive
phasesoftheeconomicconditionofsocietyyetintheacceptedsystemsthiswasadesideratum，nothingbutsomepartialand
fragmentarynotionsonthiswholesideofthesubjectbeingyetextant。（3）And，further，theeconomicstructureandworking
ofonehistoricstagebeingdifferentfromthoseofanother，wemustabandontheideaofanabsolutesystempossessing
universalvalidity，andsubstitutethatofaseriesofsuchsystems，inwhich，however，thesuccessionisnotatallarbitrary，but
isitselfregulatedbylaw。
ThoughComte’senterprisewasaconstructiveone，hisaimbeingthefoundationofascientifictheoryofsociety，hecould
notavoidcriticisingthelaboursofthosewhobeforehimhadtreatedseveralbranchesofsocialinquiry。Amongstthemthe
economistswerenecessarilyconsidered;andheurgedorimplied，invariousplacesofhisabove—namedwork，aswellasof
hisPolitiquePositive，objectionstotheirgeneralideasandmethodsofprocedureessentiallythesamewiththosewhichwe
statedinspeakingofRicardoandhisfollowers。J。S。Millshowshimselfmuchirritatedbythesecomments，andremarkson
themasshowing\"howextremelysuperficialM。Comte\"（whomheyetregardsasathinkerquitecomparablewithDescartes
andLeibnitz）\"couldsometimesbe，\"anunfortunateobservation，whichhewouldscarcelyhavemadeifhecouldhave
foreseenthesubsequentmarchofEuropeanthought，andthelargedegreeinwhichthemainpointsofComte’scriticismhave
beenacceptedorindependentlyreproduced。
GERMANY
ThesecondmanifestationofthisnewmovementineconomicsciencewastheappearanceoftheGermanhistoricalschool。
Theviewsofthisschooldonotappeartohavearisen，likeComte’stheoryofsociologicalmethod，outofgeneral
philosophicideas;theyseemrathertohavebeensuggestedbyanextensiontotheeconomicfieldoftheconceptionsofthe
historicalschoolofjurisprudenceofwhichSavignywasthemosteminentrepresentative。Thejuristicsystemisnotafixed
socialphenomenon，butisvariablefromonestageintheprogressofsocietytoanother;itisinvitalrelationwiththeother
coexistentsocialfactors;andwhatis，inthejuralsphere，adaptedtooneperiodofdevelopment，isoftenunfitforanother。
Theseideaswereseentobeapplicabletotheeconomicsystemalso;therelativepointofviewwasthusreached，andthe
absoluteattitudewasfoundtobeuntenable。Cosmopolitanismintheory，ortheassumptionofasystemequallytrueofevery
country，andwhathasbeencalledperpetualism，ortheassumptionofasystemapplicabletoeverysocialstage，werealike
discredited。AndsotheGermanhistoricalschoolappearstohavetakenitsrise。
Omittingpreparatoryindicationsandundevelopedgermsofdoctrine，wemusttracetheoriginoftheschooltoWilhelm
Roscher（18171894）。Itsfundamentalprinciplesarestated，thoughwithsomehesitation，andwithanunfortunatecontrast
ofthehistoricalwiththe\"philosophical\"method，（4）inhisGrundrisszuVorlesungenüberdieStaatswirthschaftnach
geschichtlicherMethode（1843）。Thefollowingaretheleadingheadsinsistedonintheprefacetothatwork。
\"Thehistoricalmethodexhibitsitselfnotmerelyintheexternalformofatreatmentofphenomenaaccordingtotheir
chronologicalsuccession，butinthefollowingfundamentalideas。（1。）Theaimistorepresentwhatnationshavethought，
willed，anddiscoveredintheeconomicfield，whattheyhavestrivenafterandattained，andwhytheyhaveattainedit。（2。）A
peopleisnotmerelythemassofindividualsnowliving;itwillnotsufficetoobservecontemporaryfacts。（3。）Allthepeoples
ofwhomwecanlearnanythingmustbestudiedandcomparedfromtheeconomicpointofview，especiallytheancient
peoples，whosedevelopmentliesbeforeusinitstotality。（4。）Wemustnotsimplypraiseorblameeconomicinstitutions;few
ofthemhavebeensalutaryordetrimentaltoallpeoplesandatallstagesofculture;ratheritisaprincipaltaskofscienceto
showhowandwhy，outofwhatwasoncereasonableandbeneficent，theunwiseandinexpedienthasoftengraduallyarisen。\"
OftheprinciplesenunciatedinthisparaphraseofRoscher’swordsaportionofthethirdaloneseemsopentoobjection;the
economyofancientpeoplesisnotamoreimportantsubjectofstudythanthatofthemoderns;indeed，thequestionofthe
relativeimportanceofthetwoisonethatoughtnottoberaised。Fortheessentialconditionofallsoundsociologicalinquiry
isthecomparativeconsiderationoftheentireseriesofthemostcompleteevolutionknowntohistorythat，namely，ofthe
groupofnationsformingwhatisknownastheOccidentalCommonwealth，or，morebriefly，\"theWest。\"Thereasonsfor
choosingthissocialseries，andforprovisionallyrestrictingourstudiesalmostaltogethertoit，havebeenstatedwith
unanswerableforcebyComteinthePhilosophiePositive。GreeceandRomeare，indeed，elementsintheseries;butitisthe
developmentasawhole，notanyspecialportionsofit，thatSociologymustkeepinviewinordertodeterminethelawsof
themovement，justas，inthestudyofbiologicalevolution，noonestageofanorganismcanbeconsideredasof
preponderatingimportance，theentiresuccessionofchangesbeingtheobjectofresearch。OfRoscher’sfurthereminent
servicesweshallspeakhereafter;heisnowmentionedonlyinrelationtotheoriginofthenewschool。