Inconsequenceoftherevolution,theannualinterestofthedebtofFrancewillbereducedatleastsixmillionssterling,bypayingoffupwardsofonehundredmillionsofthecapital;which,withlesseningtheformerexpensesofgovernmentatleastthreemillions,willplaceFranceinasituationworthytheimitationofEurope。
Uponawholereviewofthesubject,howvastisthecontrast！WhileMr。BurkehasbeentalkingofageneralbankruptcyinFrance,theNationalAssemblyhasbeenpayingoffthecapitalofitsdebt;andwhiletaxeshaveincreasednearamillionayearinEngland,theyhaveloweredseveralmillionsayearinFrance。NotawordhaseitherMr。BurkeorMr。PittsaidabouttheFrenchaffairs,orthestateoftheFrenchfinances,inthepresentSessionofParliament。Thesubjectbeginstobetoowellunderstood,andimpositionservesnolonger。
ThereisageneralenigmarunningthroughthewholeofMr。Burke\'sbook。
HewritesinarageagainsttheNationalAssembly;butwhatisheenragedabout？Ifhisassertionswereastrueastheyaregroundless,andthatFrancebyherRevolution,hadannihilatedherpower,andbecomewhathecallsachasm,itmightexcitethegriefofaFrenchman（consideringhimselfasanationalman）,andprovokehisrageagainsttheNationalAssembly;
butwhyshoulditexcitetherageofMr。Burke？Alas！itisnotthenationofFrancethatMr。Burkemeans,buttheCourt;andeveryCourtinEurope,dreadingthesamefate,isinmourning。HewritesneitherinthecharacterofaFrenchmannoranEnglishman,butinthefawningcharacterofthatcreatureknowninallcountries,andafriendtonone—acourtier。WhetheritbetheCourtofVersailles,ortheCourtofSt。James,orCarlton—House,ortheCourtinexpectation,signifiesnot;forthecaterpillarprincipleofallCourtsandCourtiersarealike。TheyformacommonpolicythroughoutEurope,detachedandseparatefromtheinterestofNations:andwhiletheyappeartoquarrel,theyagreetoplunder。NothingcanbemoreterribletoaCourtorCourtierthantheRevolutionofFrance。ThatwhichisablessingtoNationsisbitternesstothem:andastheirexistencedependsontheduplicityofacountry,theytrembleattheapproachofprinciples,anddreadtheprecedentthatthreatenstheiroverthrow。ConclusionReasonandIgnorance,theoppositesofeachother,influencethegreatbulkofmankind。Ifeitherofthesecanberenderedsufficientlyextensiveinacountry,themachineryofGovernmentgoeseasilyon。Reasonobeysitself;andIgnorancesubmitstowhateverisdictatedtoit。
ThetwomodesoftheGovernmentwhichprevailintheworld,are—
First,Governmentbyelectionandrepresentation。
Secondly,Governmentbyhereditarysuccession。
Theformerisgenerallyknownbythenameofrepublic;thelatterbythatofmonarchyandaristocracy。
ThosetwodistinctandoppositeformserectthemselvesonthetwodistinctandoppositebasesofReasonandIgnorance。—AstheexerciseofGovernmentrequirestalentsandabilities,andastalentsandabilitiescannothavehereditarydescent,itisevidentthathereditarysuccessionrequiresabelieffrommantowhichhisreasoncannotsubscribe,andwhichcanonlybeestablisheduponhisignorance;andthemoreignorantanycountryis,thebetteritisfittedforthisspeciesofGovernment。
Onthecontrary,Government,inawell—constitutedrepublic,requiresnobelieffrommanbeyondwhathisreasoncangive。Heseestherationaleofthewholesystem,itsoriginanditsoperation;andasitisbestsupportedwhenbestunderstood,thehumanfacultiesactwithboldness,andacquire,underthisformofgovernment,agiganticmanliness。
As,therefore,eachofthoseformsactsonadifferentbase,theonemovingfreelybytheaidofreason,theotherbyignorance;wehavenexttoconsider,whatitisthatgivesmotiontothatspeciesofGovernmentwhichiscalledmixedGovernment,or,asitissometimesludicrouslystyled,aGovernmentofthis,thatandt\'other。
ThemovingpowerinthisspeciesofGovernmentis,ofnecessity,Corruption。
HoweverimperfectelectionandrepresentationmaybeinmixedGovernments,theystillgiveexercisetoagreaterportionofreasonthanisconvenienttothehereditaryPart;andthereforeitbecomesnecessarytobuythereasonup。AmixedGovernmentisanimperfecteverything,cementingandsolderingthediscordantpartstogetherbycorruption,toactasawhole。Mr。BurkeappearshighlydisgustedthatFrance,sinceshehadresolvedonarevolution,didnotadoptwhathecalls\"ABritishConstitution\";andtheregretfulmannerinwhichheexpresseshimselfonthisoccasionimpliesasuspicionthattheBritishConstitutionneededsomethingtokeepitsdefectsincountenance。
InmixedGovernmentsthereisnoresponsibility:thepartscovereachothertillresponsibilityislost;andthecorruptionwhichmovesthemachine,contrivesatthesametimeitsownescape。Whenitislaiddownasamaxim,thataKingcandonowrong,itplaceshiminastateofsimilarsecuritywiththatofidiotsandpersonsinsane,andresponsibilityisoutofthequestionwithrespecttohimself。ItthendescendsupontheMinister,whosheltershimselfunderamajorityinParliament,which,byplaces,pensions,andcorruption,hecanalwayscommand;andthatmajorityjustifiesitselfbythesameauthoritywithwhichitprotectstheMinister。Inthisrotatorymotion,responsibilityisthrownofffromtheparts,andfromthewhole。
WhenthereisaPartinaGovernmentwhichcandonowrong,itimpliesthatitdoesnothing;andisonlythemachineofanotherpower,bywhoseadviceanddirectionitacts。WhatissupposedtobetheKinginthemixedGovernments,istheCabinet;andastheCabinetisalwaysapartoftheParliament,andthemembersjustifyinginonecharacterwhattheyadviseandactinanother,amixedGovernmentbecomesacontinualenigma;entailinguponacountrybythequantityofcorruptionnecessarytosoldertheparts,theexpenseofsupportingalltheformsofgovernmentatonce,andfinallyresolvingitselfintoaGovernmentbyCommittee;inwhichtheadvisers,theactors,theapprovers,thejustifiers,thepersonsresponsible,andthepersonsnotresponsible,arethesamepersons。
Bythispantomimicalcontrivance,andchangeofsceneandcharacter,thepartshelpeachotheroutinmatterswhichneitherofthemsinglywouldassumetoact。Whenmoneyistobeobtained,themassofvarietyapparentlydissolves,andaprofusionofparliamentarypraisespassesbetweentheparts。Eachadmireswithastonishment,thewisdom,theliberality,thedisinterestednessoftheother:andallofthembreatheapityingsighattheburthensoftheNation。
Butinawell—constitutedrepublic,nothingofthissoldering,praising,andpitying,cantakeplace;therepresentationbeingequalthroughoutthecountry,andcompleteinitself,howeveritmaybearrangedintolegislativeandexecutive,theyhavealloneandthesamenaturalsource。Thepartsarenotforeignerstoeachother,likedemocracy,aristocracy,andmonarchy。
Astherearenodiscordantdistinctions,thereisnothingtocorruptbycompromise,norconfoundbycontrivance。PublicmeasuresappealofthemselvestotheunderstandingoftheNation,and,restingontheirownmerits,disownanyflatteringapplicationstovanity。Thecontinualwhineoflamentingtheburdenoftaxes,howeversuccessfullyitmaybepractisedinmixedGovernments,isinconsistentwiththesenseandspiritofarepublic。Iftaxesarenecessary,theyareofcourseadvantageous;butiftheyrequireanapology,theapologyitselfimpliesanimpeachment。Why,then,ismanthusimposedupon,orwhydoesheimposeuponhimself？
Whenmenarespokenofaskingsandsubjects,orwhenGovernmentismentionedunderthedistinctandcombinedheadsofmonarchy,aristocracy,anddemocracy,whatisitthatreasoningmanistounderstandbytheterms？
Iftherereallyexistedintheworldtwoormoredistinctandseparateelementsofhumanpower,weshouldthenseetheseveraloriginstowhichthosetermswoulddescriptivelyapply;butasthereisbutonespeciesofman,therecanbebutoneelementofhumanpower;andthatelementismanhimself。Monarchy,aristocracy,anddemocracy,arebutcreaturesofimagination;andathousandsuchmaybecontrivedaswellasthree。
FromtheRevolutionsofAmericaandFrance,andthesymptomsthathaveappearedinothercountries,itisevidentthattheopinionoftheworldischangingwithrespecttosystemsofGovernment,andthatrevolutionsarenotwithinthecompassofpoliticalcalculations。Theprogressoftimeandcircumstances,whichmenassigntotheaccomplishmentofgreatchanges,istoomechanicaltomeasuretheforceofthemind,andtherapidityofreflection,bywhichrevolutionsaregenerated:Alltheoldgovernmentshavereceivedashockfromthosethatalreadyappear,andwhichwereoncemoreimprobable,andareagreatersubjectofwonder,thanageneralrevolutioninEuropewouldbenow。
Whenwesurveythewretchedconditionofman,underthemonarchicalandhereditarysystemsofGovernment,draggedfromhishomebyonepower,ordrivenbyanother,andimpoverishedbytaxesmorethanbyenemies,itbecomesevidentthatthosesystemsarebad,andthatageneralrevolutionintheprincipleandconstructionofGovernmentsisnecessary。
WhatisgovernmentmorethanthemanagementoftheaffairsofaNation？
Itisnot,andfromitsnaturecannotbe,thepropertyofanyparticularmanorfamily,butofthewholecommunity,atwhoseexpenseitissupported;
andthoughbyforceandcontrivanceithasbeenusurpedintoaninheritance,theusurpationcannotaltertherightofthings。Sovereignty,asamatterofright,appertainstotheNationonly,andnottoanyindividual;andaNationhasatalltimesaninherentindefeasiblerighttoabolishanyformofGovernmentitfindsinconvenient,andtoestablishsuchasaccordswithitsinterest,dispositionandhappiness。TheromanticandbarbarousdistinctionofmenintoKingsandsubjects,thoughitmaysuittheconditionofcourtiers,cannotthatofcitizens;andisexplodedbytheprincipleuponwhichGovernmentsarenowfounded。EverycitizenisamemberoftheSovereignty,and,assuch,canacknowledgenopersonalsubjection;andhisobediencecanbeonlytothelaws。
WhenmenthinkofwhatGovernmentis,theymustnecessarilysupposeittopossessaknowledgeofalltheobjectsandmattersuponwhichitsauthorityistobeexercised。InthisviewofGovernment,therepublicansystem,asestablishedbyAmericaandFrance,operatestoembracethewholeofaNation;andtheknowledgenecessarytotheinterestofalltheparts,istobefoundinthecenter,whichthepartsbyrepresentationform:ButtheoldGovernmentsareonaconstructionthatexcludesknowledgeaswellashappiness;governmentbyMonks,whoknewnothingoftheworldbeyondthewallsofaConvent,isasconsistentasgovernmentbyKings。
WhatwereformerlycalledRevolutions,werelittlemorethanachangeofpersons,oranalterationoflocalcircumstances。Theyroseandfelllikethingsofcourse,andhadnothingintheirexistenceortheirfatethatcouldinfluencebeyondthespotthatproducedthem。Butwhatwenowseeintheworld,fromtheRevolutionsofAmericaandFrance,arearenovationofthenaturalorderofthings,asystemofprinciplesasuniversalastruthandtheexistenceofman,andcombiningmoralwithpoliticalhappinessandnationalprosperity。
\"I。Menareborn,andalwayscontinue,freeandequalinrespectoftheirrights。Civildistinctions,therefore,canbefoundedonlyonpublicutility。
\"II。Theendofallpoliticalassociationsisthepreservationofthenaturalandimprescriptiblerightsofman;andtheserightsareliberty,property,security,andresistanceofoppression。
\"III。Thenationisessentiallythesourceofallsovereignty;norcananyIndividual,oranybodyofmen,beentitledtoanyauthoritywhichisnotexpresslyderivedfromit。\"
Intheseprinciples,thereisnothingtothrowaNationintoconfusionbyinflamingambition。Theyarecalculatedtocallforthwisdomandabilities,andtoexercisethemforthepublicgood,andnotfortheemolumentoraggrandisementofparticulardescriptionsofmenorfamilies。Monarchicalsovereignty,theenemyofmankind,andthesourceofmisery,isabolished;
andthesovereigntyitselfisrestoredtoitsnaturalandoriginalplace,theNation。WerethisthecasethroughoutEurope,thecauseofwarswouldbetakenaway。
ItisattributedtoHenrytheFourthofFrance,amanofenlargedandbenevolentheart,thatheproposed,abouttheyear1610,aplanforabolishingwarinEurope。TheplanconsistedinconstitutinganEuropeanCongress,orastheFrenchauthorsstyleit,aPacificRepublic;byappointingdelegatesfromtheseveralNationswhoweretoactasaCourtofarbitrationinanydisputesthatmightarisebetweennationandnation。
Hadsuchaplanbeenadoptedatthetimeitwasproposed,thetaxesofEnglandandFrance,astwooftheparties,wouldhavebeenatleasttenmillionssterlingannuallytoeachNationlessthantheywereatthecommencementoftheFrenchRevolution。
Toconceiveacausewhysuchaplanhasnotbeenadopted（andthatinsteadofaCongressforthepurposeofpreventingwar,ithasbeencalledonlytoterminateawar,afterafruitlessexpenseofseveralyears）itwillbenecessarytoconsidertheinterestofGovernmentsasadistinctinteresttothatofNations。
WhateveristhecauseoftaxestoaNation,becomesalsothemeansofrevenuetoGovernment。Everywarterminateswithanadditionoftaxes,andconsequentlywithanadditionofrevenue;andinanyeventofwar,inthemannertheyarenowcommencedandconcluded,thepowerandinterestofGovernmentsareincreased。War,therefore,fromitsproductiveness,asiteasilyfurnishesthepretenceofnecessityfortaxesandappointmentstoplacesandoffices,becomesaprincipalpartofthesystemofoldGovernments;
andtoestablishanymodetoabolishwar,howeveradvantageousitmightbetoNations,wouldbetotakefromsuchGovernmentthemostlucrativeofitsbranches。Thefrivolousmattersuponwhichwarismade,showthedispositionandavidityofGovernmentstoupholdthesystemofwar,andbetraythemotivesuponwhichtheyact。
WhyarenotRepublicsplungedintowar,butbecausethenatureoftheirGovernmentdoesnotadmitofaninterestdistinctfromthatoftheNation？
EvenHolland,thoughanill—constructedRepublic,andwithacommerceextendingovertheworld,existednearlyacenturywithoutwar:andtheinstanttheformofGovernmentwaschangedinFrance,therepublicanprinciplesofpeaceanddomesticprosperityandeconomyarosewiththenewGovernment;
andthesameconsequenceswouldfollowthecauseinotherNations。
AswaristhesystemofGovernmentontheoldconstruction,theanimositywhichNationsreciprocallyentertain,isnothingmorethanwhatthepolicyoftheirGovernmentsexcitestokeepupthespiritofthesystem。EachGovernmentaccusestheotherofperfidy,intrigue,andambition,asameansofheatingtheimaginationoftheirrespectiveNations,andincensingthemtohostilities。Manisnottheenemyofman,butthroughthemediumofafalsesystemofGovernment。Instead,therefore,ofexclaimingagainsttheambitionofKings,theexclamationshouldbedirectedagainsttheprincipleofsuchGovernments;andinsteadofseekingtoreformtheindividual,thewisdomofaNationshouldapplyitselftoreformthesystem。
WhethertheformsandmaximsofGovernmentswhicharestillinpractice,wereadaptedtotheconditionoftheworldattheperiodtheywereestablished,isnotinthiscasethequestion。Theoldertheyare,thelesscorrespondencecantheyhavewiththepresentstateofthings。Time,andchangeofcircumstancesandopinions,havethesameprogressiveeffectinrenderingmodesofGovernmentobsoleteastheyhaveuponcustomsandmanners。—Agriculture,commerce,manufactures,andthetranquilarts,bywhichtheprosperityofNationsisbestpromoted,requireadifferentsystemofGovernment,andadifferentspeciesofknowledgetodirectitsoperations,thanwhatmighthavebeenrequiredintheformerconditionoftheworld。
Asitisnotdifficulttoperceive,fromtheenlightenedstateofmankind,thathereditaryGovernmentsarevergingtotheirdecline,andthatRevolutionsonthebroadbasisofnationalsovereigntyandGovernmentbyrepresentation,aremakingtheirwayinEurope,itwouldbeanactofwisdomtoanticipatetheirapproach,andproduceRevolutionsbyreasonandaccommodation,ratherthancommitthemtotheissueofconvulsions。
Fromwhatwenowsee,nothingofreforminthepoliticalworldoughttobeheldimprobable。ItisanageofRevolutions,inwhicheverythingmaybelookedfor。TheintrigueofCourts,bywhichthesystemofwariskeptup,mayprovokeaconfederationofNationstoabolishit:andanEuropeanCongresstopatronisetheprogressoffreeGovernment,andpromotethecivilisationofNationswitheachother,isaneventnearerinprobability,thanonceweretherevolutionsandallianceofFranceandAmerica。
TheRightsOfMan:PartTheSecondParttheSecondCombiningPrincipleAndPracticeToM。delaFayetteAfteranacquaintanceofnearlyfifteenyearsindifficultsituationsinAmerica,andvariousconsultationsinEurope,Ifeelapleasureinpresentingtoyouthissmalltreatise,ingratitudeforyourservicestomybelovedAmerica,andasatestimonyofmyesteemforthevirtues,publicandprivate,whichIknowyoutopossess。
TheonlypointuponwhichIcouldeverdiscoverthatwedifferedwasnotastoprinciplesofgovernment,butastotime。FormyownpartIthinkitequallyasinjurioustogoodprinciplestopermitthemtolinger,astopushthemontoofast。Thatwhichyousupposeaccomplishableinfourteenorfifteenyears,Imaybelievepracticableinamuchshorterperiod。Mankind,asitappearstome,arealwaysripeenoughtounderstandtheirtrueinterest,provideditbepresentedclearlytotheirunderstanding,andthatinamannernottocreatesuspicionbyanythinglikeself—design,noroffendbyassumingtoomuch。Wherewewouldwishtoreformwemustnotreproach。
WhentheAmericanrevolutionwasestablishedIfeltadispositiontositserenelydownandenjoythecalm。ItdidnotappeartomethatanyobjectcouldafterwardsarisegreatenoughtomakemequittranquilityandfeelasIhadfeltbefore。Butwhenprinciple,andnotplace,istheenergeticcauseofaction,aman,Ifind,iseverywherethesame。
Iamnowoncemoreinthepublicworld;andasIhavenotarighttocontemplateonsomanyyearsofremaininglifeasyouhave,IhaveresolvedtolabourasfastasIcan;andasIamanxiousforyouraidandyourcompany,Iwishyoutohastenyourprinciplesandovertakeme。
Ifyoumakeacampaigntheensuingspring,whichitismostprobabletherewillbenooccasionfor,Iwillcomeandjoinyou。
Shouldthecampaigncommence,IhopeitwillterminateintheextinctionofGermandespotism,andinestablishingthefreedomofallGermany。WhenFranceshallbesurroundedwithrevolutionsshewillbeinpeaceandsafety,andhertaxes,aswellasthoseofGermany,willconsequentlybecomeless。
Yoursincere,AffectionateFriend,THOMASPAINE
LONDON,Feb。9,1792
PrefaceWhenIbeganthechapterentitledthe\"Conclusion\"intheformerpartoftheRightsOfMan,publishedlastyear,itwasmyintentiontohaveextendedittoagreaterlength;butincastingthewholematterinmymind,whichIwishtoadd,Ifoundthatitmusteithermaketheworktoobulky,orcontractmyplantoomuch。
Ithereforebroughtittoacloseassoonasthesubjectwouldadmit,andreservedwhatIhadfurthertosaytoanotheropportunity。
Severalotherreasonscontributedtoproducethisdetermination。Iwishedtoknowthemannerinwhichawork,writteninastyleofthinkingandexpressiondifferenttowhathadbeencustomaryinEngland,wouldbereceivedbeforeIproceededfarther。AgreatfieldwasopeningtotheviewofmankindbymeansoftheFrenchRevolution。Mr。Burke\'soutrageousoppositiontheretobroughtthecontroversyintoEngland。Heattackedprincipleswhichheknew（frominformation）Iwouldcontestwithhim,becausetheyareprinciplesIbelievetobegood,andwhichIhavecontributedtoestablish,andconceivemyselfboundtodefend。Hadhenoturgedthecontroversy,Ihadmostprobablybeenasilentman。
Anotherreasonfordeferringtheremainderoftheworkwas,thatMr。
Burkepromisedinhisfirstpublicationtorenewthesubjectatanotheropportunity,andtomakeacomparisonofwhathecalledtheEnglishandFrenchConstitutions。Ithereforeheldmyselfinreserveforhim。Hehaspublishedtwoworkssince,withoutdoingthis:whichhecertainlywouldnothaveomitted,hadthecomparisonbeeninhisfavour。
Inhislastwork,his\"AppealfromtheNewtotheOldWhigs,\"hehasquotedabouttenpagesfromtheRightsOfMan,andhavinggivenhimselfthetroubleofdoingthis,sayshe\"shallnotattemptinthesmallestdegreetorefutethem,\"meaningtheprinciplesthereincontained。IamenoughacquaintedwithMr。Burketoknowthathewouldifhecould。Butinsteadofcontestingthem,heimmediatelyafterconsoleshimselfwithsayingthat\"hehasdonehispart。\"—Hehasnotdonehispart。Hehasnotperformedhispromiseofacomparisonofconstitutions。Hestartedthecontroversy,hegavethechallenge,andhasfledfromit;andheisnowacaseinpointwithhisownopinionthat\"theageofchivalryisgone！\"
Thetitle,aswellasthesubstanceofhislastwork,his\"Appeal,\"
ishiscondemnation。Principlesmuststandontheirownmerits,andiftheyaregoodtheycertainlywill。Toputthemundertheshelterofothermen\'sauthority,asMr。Burkehasdone,servestobringthemintosuspicion。Mr。Burkeisnotveryfondofdividinghishonours,butinthiscaseheisartfullydividingthedisgrace。
ButwhoarethosetowhomMr。Burkehasmadehisappeal？Asetofchildishthinkers,andhalf—waypoliticiansborninthelastcentury,menwhowentnofartherwithanyprinciplethanasitsuitedtheirpurposesasaparty;thenationwasalwaysleftoutofthequestion;andthishasbeenthecharacterofeverypartyfromthatdaytothis。Thenationseesnothingofsuchworks,orsuchpolitics,worthyitsattention。Alittlematterwillmoveaparty,butitmustbesomethinggreatthatmovesanation。
ThoughIseenothinginMr。Burke\'s\"Appeal\"worthtakingmuchnoticeof,thereis,however,oneexpressionuponwhichI
shallofferafewremarks。AfterquotinglargelyfromtheRightsOfMan,anddecliningtocontesttheprinciplescontainedinthatwork,hesays:\"Thiswillmostprobablybedone（ifsuchwritingsshallbethoughttodeserveanyotherrefutationthanthatofcriminaljustice）byothers,whomaythinkwithMr。Burkeandwiththesamezeal。\"
Inthefirstplace,ithasnotyetbeendonebyanybody。Notless,I
believe,thaneightortenpamphletsintendedasanswerstotheformerpartoftheRightsOfManhavebeenpublishedbydifferentpersons,andnotoneofthemtomyknowledge,hasextendedtoasecondedition,norareeventhetitlesofthemsomuchasgenerallyremembered。AsIamaversetounnecessarymultiplyingpublications,Ihaveanswerednoneofthem。AndasIbelievethatamanmaywritehimselfoutofreputationwhennobodyelsecandoit,Iamcarefultoavoidthatrock。
ButasIwoulddeclineunnecessarypublicationsontheonehand,sowouldIavoideverythingthatmightappearlikesullenprideontheother。IfMr。Burke,oranypersononhissidethequestion,willproduceananswertotheRightsOfManthatshallextendtoahalf,oreventoafourthpartofthenumberofcopiestowhichtheRightsOfManextended,Iwillreplytohiswork。Butuntilthisbedone,Ishallsofartakethesenseofthepublicformyguide（andtheworldknowsIamnotaflatterer）thatwhattheydonotthinkworthwhiletoread,isnotworthminetoanswer。IsupposethenumberofcopiestowhichthefirstpartoftheRightsOfManextended,takingEngland,Scotland,andIreland,isnotlessthanbetweenfortyandfiftythousand。