Andletusnotsleepinthedelusionthatweshallderiveallneedfulsecurityfromourown\"intelligenceandvirtue.\"Thepeoplemay,indeed,preservetheirlibertiesforever,iftheywilltakecaretobealwaysvirtuous,alwayswise,andalwaysvigilant.Andtheywillbeequallysecure,iftheycanassurethemselvesthattherulerstheymayselectwillneverabusetheirtrust,butwillalwaysunderstandandalwayspursuethetrueinterestsofthepeople.But,unhappily,therearenosuchpeopleandnosuchrulers.
Agovernmentmustbeimperfect,indeed,ifitrequiresuchadegreeofvirtueinthepeopleasrendersallgovernmentunnecessary.Governmentisfounded,notinthevirtues,butinthevicesofmankind;notintheirknowledgeandwisdom,butintheirignoranceandfolly.Itsobjectistoprotecttheweak,torestraintheviolent,topunishthevicious,andtocompelalltotheperformanceofthedutywhichmanowestomaninasocialstate.Itisnotaself-actingmachine,whichwillgoonandperformitsworkwithouthumanagency;itcannotbeseparatedfromthehumanbeingswhofillitsplaces,setinmotion,andregulateanddirectitsoperations.
Solongastheseareliabletoerrinjudgment,ortofailinvirtue,solongwillgovernmentbeliabletorunintoabuses.Untilallmenshallbecomesoperfectasnottorequiretoberuled,allgovernmentsprofessingtobefreewillrequiretobewatched,guarded,checkedandcontrolled.
Todothiseffectuallyrequiresmorethanwegenerallyfindofpublicvirtueandpublicintelligence.Agreatmajorityofmankindaremuchmoresensibletotheirintereststhantotheirrights.Wheneverthepeoplecanbepersuadedthatitistheirgreatestinteresttomaintaintheirrights,then,andthenonly,willfreegovernmentbesafefromabuses.
LookingatourownFederalGovernment,apartfromtheStates,andregardingit,asJudgeStorywouldhaveus,asaconsolidatedgovernmentofallthepeopleoftheUnitedStates,weshallnotfindinitthissalutarycountervailinginterest.Inanenlargedsense,itis,indeed,thegreatestinterestofalltosupportthatgovernmentinitspurity;for,althoughitisundoubtedlydefectiveinmanyimportantrespects,itismuchthebestthathasyetbeendevised.Unhappily,however,thegreatestinterestofthewholeisnotfelttobe,althoughintruthitis,thegreatestinterestofalltheparts.Thisresultsfromthefact,thatourcharacterisnothomogeneous,andourpursuitsarewhollydifferent.Rightlyunderstood,thesefactsshouldtendtobindusthemorecloselytogether,byshowingusourdependenceuponeachother;anditshouldteachusthenecessityofwatching,withthegreaterjealousy,everydeparturefromthestrictprinciplesofourunion.Itisatruth,however,nolessmelancholythanincontestable,thatifthiseverwastheviewofthepeople,ithasceasedtobeso.Anditcouldnotbeotherwise.WhateverbethetheoryofourConstitution,itspractice,oflateyears,hasmadeitaconsolidatedgovernment;thegovernmentofanirresponsiblemajority.Ifthatmajoritycanfind,eitherinthepursuitsoftheirownpeculiarindustry,orintheofficesandemolumentswhichflowfromthepatronageofthegovernment,aninterestdistinctfromthatoftheminority,theywillpursuethatinterest,andnothingwillbelefttotheminoritybutthepoorprivilegeofcomplaining.Thusthegovernmentbecomestyrannousandoppressive,preciselyinproportionasitsdemocraticprincipleisextended;andinsteadoftheenlargedandgeneralinterestwhichshouldcheckandrestrainit,apeculiarinterestisenlisted,toextenditspowersandsustainitsabuses.Publicvirtueandintelligenceavaillittle,insuchaconditionofthingsasthis.Thatvirtuefallsbeforethetemptation\'sofinterestwhichyoupresenttoit,andthatintelligence,thusdeprivedofitsencouraginghopes,servesonlytopointoutnewobjectsofunlawfulpursuit,andsuggestnewandbasermethodsofattainingthem.
Thisresultcouldscarcelybebroughtabout,iftheFederalGovernmentwereallowedtorestontheprinciplesuponwhichIhaveendeavoredtoplaceit.Thecheckingandcontrollinginfluenceswhichaffordsafetytopublicliberty,arenottobefoundinthegovernmentitself.Thepeoplecannotalwaysprotectthemselvesagainsttheirrulers;iftheycould,nofreegovernment,inpasttimes,wouldhavebeenoverthrown.Powerandpatronagecannoteasilybesolimitedanddefined,astorobthemoftheircorruptinginfluencesoverthepublicmind.ItistrulyandwiselyremarkedbytheFederalist,that\"apoweroveraman\'ssubsistenceisapoweroverhiswill.\"AslittleaspossibleofthispowershouldbeentrustedtotheFederalGovernment,andeventhatlittleshouldbewatchedbyapowerauthorizedandcompetenttoarrestitsabuses.ThatpowercanbefoundonlyintheStates.Inthisconsiststhegreatsuperiorityofthefederativesystemovereveryother.Inthatsystem,theFederalGovernmentisresponsible,notdirectlytothepeopleenmasse,buttothepeopleintheircharacterofdistinctpoliticalcorporations.Howevereasyitmaybetostealpowerfromthepeople,governmentsdonotsoreadilyyieldtooneanother.TheconfederatedStatesconferontheircommongovernmentonlysuchpowerastheythemselvescannotseparatelyexercise,orsuchascanbebetterexercisedbythatgovernment.Theyhave,therefore,anequalinterest,togiveitpowerenough,andtopreventitfromassumingtoomuch.Intheirhands,thepowerofinterpositionisattendedwithnodanger;itmaybesafelylodgedwherethereisnointeresttoabuseit.
Underafederativesystem,thepeoplearenotliabletobeactedonatleast,nottothesameextent,bythoseinfluenceswhicharesoapttobetrayandenslavethem,underaconsolidatedgovernmentPopularmasses,actingundertheexcitementsofthemoment,areeasilyledintofatalerrors.
Historyisfullofexamplesofthegoodandgreatsacrificedtothehastyjudgmentsofinfuriatedmultitudes,andofthemostfatalpublicmeasuresadoptedundertheexcitementsofthemoment.Howeasyitisfortheadroitandcunningtoavailthemselvesofsuchoccasions,andhowimpossibleitis,forapeoplesoactedon,towatchtheirrulerswisely,andguardthemselvesagainsttheencroachmentsofpower?Inafederativesystem,thisdangerisavoided,sofarastheircommongovernmentisconcerned.Therightofinterpositionbelongs,nottothepeopleintheaggregate,buttothepeopleinseparateandcomparativelysmallsubdivisions.Andeveninthesesubdivisions,theycanactonlythroughtheformsoftheirownseparategovernments.
Thesearenecessarilyslowanddeliberate,affordingtimeforexcitementtosubside,andforpassiontocool.Havingtopassthroughtheirowngovernments,beforetheyreachthatoftheUnitedStates,theyareforbiddentoactuntiltheyhavehadtimeforreflection,andfortheexerciseofacoolandtemperatejudgment.Besides,theyaretaughttolook,nottoonegovernmentonly,fortheprotectionandsecurityoftheirrights,andnottofeelthattheyoweobedienceonlytothat.Consciousthattheycanfind,intheirownStategovernments,protectionagainstthewrongsoftheFederalGovernment,theirfeelingofdependenceislessoppressive,andtheirjudgmentsmorefree.Andwhiletheireffortstothrowoffoppressionarenotrepressedbyafeelingthatthereisnopowertowhichtheycanappeal,theseeffortsarekeptundercluerestraints,byaconsciousnessthattheycannotbeunwiselyexerted,excepttotheinjuryofthepeoplethemselves.ItisdifficulttoperceivehowaFederalGovernment,establishedoncorrectprinciples,caneverbeoverthrown,exceptbyexternalviolence,solongasthefederativeprincipleisdulyrespectedandmaintained.Alltherequisitechecksandbalanceswillbefound,intherightoftheStatestokeeptheircommongovernmentwithintheircommonsphere;andasufficientsecurityforthedueexerciseofthatrightisaffordedbythefact,thatitistheinterestoftheStatestoexerciseitdiscreetly.Sofarasourowngovernmentisconcerned,Iventuretopredictthatitwillbecomeabsoluteandirresponsible,preciselyinproportionastherightsoftheStatesshallceasetoberespected,andtheirauthoritytointerposeforthecorrectionoffederalabusesshallbedeniedandoverthrown.
ItshouldbetheobjectofeverypatriotintheUnitedStatestoencourageahighrespectfortheStategovernments.Thepeopleshouldbetaughttoregardthemastheirgreatestinterest,andasthefirstobjectsoftheirdutyandaffection.Maintainedintheirjustrightsandpowers,theyformthetruebalance-wheel,theonlyeffectualcheckonfederalencroachments.
Anditpossessesasacheckthesedistinguishingadvantagesovereveryother,thatitcanneverbeappliedwithoutgreatdeliberationandcaution,thatitiscertaininitseffects,andthatitisbutlittleliabletoabuse.ItistruethataStatemayuseitspowerforimproperpurposes,oronimproperoccasions;buttheFederalGovernmentis,tosaytheleastofit,equallyliabletodangerouserrorsandviolationsoftrust.Shallwethenleavethatgovernmentfreefromallrestraint,merelybecausethepropercountervailingpowerisliabletoabuse?UponthesameprincipleweshouldabandonalltheguardsandsecuritieswhichwehavesocarefullyprovidedintheFederalConstitutionitself.Thetruthis,allchecksupongovernmentaremoreorlessimperfect;forifitwerenotso,governmentitselfwouldbeperfect.Butthisisnoreasonwhyweshouldabandonittoitsownwill.Wehaveonlytoapplytothissubjectourbestdiscretionandcaution,toconfernomorepowerthanisabsolutelynecessary,andtoguardthatpowerascarefullyaswecan.Perfectionisnottobehopedfor;butanapproximationtoit,sufficientlyneartoaffordareasonablesecuritytoourrightsandliberties,isnotunattainable.IntheformationoftheFederalGovernmentwehavebeencarefultolimititspowersanddefineitsduties.Ourobjectwastorenderitsuchthatthepeopleshouldfeelaninterestinsustainingitinitspurity,forotherwiseitcouldnotlongsubsist.Uponthesameprinciple,weshouldenlistthesameinterestinthewiseandproperapplicationofthosechecks,whichitsunavoidableimperfectionsrendernecessary.ThatinterestisfoundintheStates.HavingcreatedtheFederalGovernmentattheirownfreewill,andfortheirownuses,whyshouldtheyseektodestroyit?Havingclotheditwithacertainportionoftheirownpowers,fortheirownbenefitalone,whyshouldtheydesiretorenderthosepowersinoperativeandnugatory?Thedangeris,notthattheStateswillinterposetoooften,butthattheywillrathersubmittofederalusurpations,thanincurtheriskofembarrassingthatgovernment,byanyattemptstocheckandcontrolit.Flagrantabusesalone,andsuchaspubliclibertycannotendure,willevercallintoactionthissalutaryandconservativepoweroftheStates.
Butwhetherthischeckbethebestortheworstinitsnature,itisatleastonewhichoursystemallows.ItisnotfoundwithintheConstitution,butexistsindependentofit.AsthatConstitutionwasformedbysovereignStates,theyaloneareauthorized,wheneverthequestionarisesbetweenthemandtheircommongovernment,todetermine,inthelastresort,whatpowerstheyintendedtoconferonit.28Thisisaninseparableincidentofsovereignty;arightwhichbelongstotheStates,simplybecausetheyhaveneversurrenderedittoanyotherpower.Buttorenderthisrightavailableforanygoodpurpose,itisindispensablynecessarytomaintaintheStatesintheirproperposition.Iftheirpeoplesufferthemtosinkintotheinsignificanceofmeremunicipalcorporations,itwillbeinvaintoinvoketheirprotectionagainstthegiganticpoweroftheFederalGovernment.Thisisthepointtowhichthevigilanceofthepeopleshouldbechieflydirected.Theirhighestinterestisathome;
theirpalladiumistheirownStategovernments.Theyoughttoknowthattheycanlooknowhereelsewithperfectassuranceofsafetyandprotection.
Letthemthenmaintainthosegovernments,notonlyintheirrights,butintheirdignityandinfluence.Makeittheinterestoftheirpeopletoservethem;anintereststrongenoughtoresistallthetemptationsoffederalofficeandpatronage.ThenalonewilltheirvoicebeheardwithrespectatWashington;thenalonewilltheirinterpositionavailtoprotecttheirownpeopleagainsttheusurpationsofthegreatcentralpower.Itisvaintohopethatthefederativeprincipleofourgovernmentcanbepreserved,orthatanythingcanpreventitfromrunningintotheabsolutismofconsolidation,ifwesuffertherightsoftheStatestobefilchedaway,andtheirdignityandinfluencetobelost,throughourcarelessnessorneglect.
Endnotes1.GeneralHamiltononeoftheprincipalwritersoftheFederalist,wasundoubtedlyatheartamonarchist.Onmorethanoneoccasionheplainlyavowedhimselfsuch.IntheconventionwhichframedtheConstitution,heexertedhiscommandinginfluencetoimpartcentralized,consolidated,ormonarchicalpowerstotheFederalUnion.
But,signallyfailinginthis,inhissubsequentinterpretationsoftheConstitutionhedidwhathecouldtobendtheinstrumenttosuithisviews.
JudgeStoryandChiefJusticeKent,and,earlier,ChiefJusticeJay,belongedtothesamepoliticalpartyasGeneralHamilton.TheywereFederalists,andsoodiousdidthispartybecometotheAmericanpeople,thatitwasdrivenoutofpowerattheexpirationofoldJohnAdams\'ssinglepresidentialtermin1800.?[C.C.B.]
2.TheresolutionsofVirginia,in1765,showthatsheconsideredherselfmerelyasanappendageoftheBritishCrown;thatherlegislaturewasaloneauthorizedtotaxher;andthatshehadarighttocallonherKing,whowastheKingofEngland,toprotectheragainsttheusurpationsoftheBritishParliament.
3.AtthistimeallthecolonieswereinthehabitofcallingEngland\"home,\"andthe\"mothercountry,\"butnosuchlanguageas\"oursistercolonies\"wasinvogue.Therewaslittleornointercoursebetweenthecolonies.Theirfirstintimateacquaintancewitheachothergrewoutofincidentsconnectedwiththeolder,Frenchwarin1756.WhenMr.QuincyofBoston,visitedCharleston,S.C.,1773,hespokeofthatcolonyas,\"thisdistantshore.\"WhenthefirstCongressassembledin1774,themembersallmetas\"strangers.\"Andtheycametogetherwithnodesigntoamalgamationortoblendtheirseparateand,astoeachother,independentsovereignties,butsimplytocombineagainstacommonfoe.Theynomoreproposedtoblendtheirseparatesovereigntiesthanacommunityofgentlemenproposetomakecommonstockofalltheirpropertywhentheytotakemeanstodetectandpunishburglarsandhorse-thieves.
?[C.C.B.]
4.Thehistoricalfactherestated,isperfectlyauthenticatedandhasneverbeendisputed;nevertheless,thefollowingextractsfromtheJournalsofCongressmaynotbeoutofplace:\"Wednesday,September14,1774.HenryWisner,adelegatefromthecountyofOrange,inthecolonyofNewYork,appearedatCongress,andproducedacertificateofhiselectionbythesaidcounty,whichbeingreadandapproved,hetookhisseatinCongressasadeputyfromthecolonyofNewYork.\"
\"Monday,September20,1774,JohnHening,Esq.,adeputyfromOrangecounty,inthecolonyofNewYork,appearedthismorning,andtookhisseatasadeputyfromthatcolony.\"
\"Saturday,October1,1774SimonBocrum,Esq.,appearedinCongressasadeputyfromKing\'scounty,inthecolonyofNewYork,andproducedthecredentialsofhiselection,whichbeingreadandapproved,hetookhisseatasadelegatefromthatcolony.\"Itisevident,fromtheseextracts,thatalthoughthedelegatesfromcertainportionsofthepeopleofNewYorkwereadmittedtoseatsinCongressasdelegatesfromthecolony,yet,inpointoffact,theywerenotelectedassuch,neitherweretheyeverrecognizedassuch,byNewYorkherself.Thetruthis,aswillpresentlyappear,themajorityofherpeoplewerenotripeforthemeasurespursuedbyCongress,andwouldnothaveagreedtoappointdelegatesforthewholecolony.
5.AreferencetothecredentialsoftheCongressof1774willshow,beyondalldoubt,thetruecharacterofthatassembly.Thefollowingareextractsfromthem:NewHampshire,\"Todevise,consultandadoptsuchmeasuresasmayhavethemostlikelytendencytoextricatethecoloniesfromtheirpresentdifficulties;tosecureandperpetuatetheirrights,liberties,andprivileges,andtorestorethatpeace,harmony,andmutualconfidence,whichoncehappilysubsistedbetweentheparentcountryandhercolonies.\"
Massachusetts.\"Toconsultonthepresentstateofthecolonies,andthemiseriestowhichtheyare,andmustbereduced,bytheoperationofcertainactsofParliamentrespectingAmerica;andtodeliberateanddetermineuponwiseandpropermeasurestobebythenrecommendedtoallthecolonies,fortherecoveryandestablishmentoftheirjustrightsandliberties,civilandreligious,andtherestorationofunionandharmonybetweenGreatBritainandthecolonies,mostardentlydesiredbyallgoodmen.\"
RhodeIsland.\"ToconsultonpropermeasurestoobtainarepealoftheseveralactsoftheBritishParliamentforlevyingtaxonhisMajesty\'ssubjectsinAmericawithouttheirconsent,anduponpropermeasurestoestablishtherightsandlibertiesofthecoloniesuponajustandsolidfoundation,agreeablytoinstructionsgivenbythegeneralassembly.\"
Connecticut\"Toconsultandadviseonpropermeasuresforadvancingthebeatgoodofthecolonies,andsuchconferencetoreportfromtimetotimetotheColonialHouseofRepresentatives.\"
NewYork.Onlyafewofhercountieswererepresented,somebydeputiesauthorizedto\"represent,\"andsomebydeputiesauthorizedto\"attendCongress.\"
NewJersey.\"TorepresentthecolonyintheGeneralCongress.\"
Pennsylvania.\"ToformandadoptaplanforthepurposesofobtainingredressofAmericangrievances,ascertainingAmericanrightsuponthemoatsolidandconstitutionalprinciples,andforestablishingthatunionandharmonybetweenGreatBritainandthecolonieswhichisindispensablynecessarytothewelfareandhappinessofboth.\"
Delaware.Toconsultandadvisewiththedeputiesfromtheothercolonies,todetermineuponallsuchprudentandlawfulmeasuresasmaybejudgedmostexpedientforthecoloniesimmediatelyandunitedlytoadopt,inordertoobtainreliefforanoppressedpeople,aandtheredressofourgeneralgrievances.\"
Maryland.\"Toattendageneralcongress,toeffectonegeneralplanofconductoperatingonthecommercialconnectionofthecolonieswiththemothercountry,forthereliefofBoston,andthepreservationofAmericanliberty.\"
Virginia.\"ToconsiderofthemostproperandeffectualmannerofsooperatingonthecommercialconnectionofthecolonieswiththemothercountryastoprocureredressforthemuchinjuredprovinceofMassachusettsBay,tosecureBritishAmericafromtheravageandruinofarbitrarytaxes,andspeedilytoprocurethereturnofthatharmonyandunion,sobeneficialtothewholeempire,andsoardentlydesiredbyallBritishAmerica.\"
NorthCarolina.\"TotakesuchmeasuresastheymaydeemprudenttoeffectthepurposeofdescribingwithcertaintytherightsofAmericans,repairingthebreachmadeinthoserights,andforguardingthemforthefutureagainstanysuchviolationsdoneunderthesanctionofpublicauthority.\"Forthesepurposesthedelegatesare\"investedwithsuchpowersasmaymakeanyactsdonebythemobligatoryinhonor,oneveryinhabitanthereof,whoisnotanalientohiscountry\'sgood,andanapostatetothelibertiesofAmerica.\"
SouthCarolina.\"Toconsidertheactslatelypassed,andbillsdependinginParliamentwithregardtotheportofBoston,andthecolonyofMassachusettsBay;whichactsandbills,intheprecedentandconsequences,affectthewholeContinentofAmerica.AlsothegrievancesunderwhichAmericalabors,byreasonoftheseveralactsofParliamentthatimposetaxesordutiesforraisingarevenue,andlayunnecessaryrestraintsandburdensontrade;andofthestatutes,parliamentaryacts,androyalinstructions,whichmakeaninvidiousdistinctionbetweenhisMajesty\'ssubjectsinGreatBritainandAmerica,withfullpowerandauthoritytoconceit,agreetoandprosecutesuchlegalmeasuresasintheopinionofthesaiddeputies,sotobeassembled,shallbemostlikelytoobtainarepealofthesaidacts,andaredressofthosegrievances.[Theaboveextractsaremadefromthecredentialsofthedeputiesoftheseveralcolonies,asspreadupontheJournalofCongress,accordingtoacopyofthatboundasappearsbyagiltlabelonthebackhereofforthePresidentofCongress?nowinpossessionofB.Tucker,Esq.
Itisperfectlyclearfromtheseextracts,1.Thatthecoloniesdidnotconsiderthemselvesas\"onepeople,\"andthat,theywerethereforeboundtoconsiderthequarrelofBostonastheirown;butthattheymadecommoncausewithMassachusetts,onlybecausetheprinciplesassertedinregardtoher,equallyaffectedtheothercolonies;2.Thateachcolonyappointeditsowndelegates,givingthempreciselysuchpowerandauthorityassuiteditsownviews;3.Thatnocolonygaveanypowerorauthority,exceptforadvisementonly;4.Thatsofarfromdesigningtoestablish\"ageneralornationalgovernment,\"andtoform,themselvesinto\"anationdefacto,\"theirgreatpurposewastobringaboutareconciliationandharmonywiththemothercountry.ThisisstillfartherapparentfromthetoneofthepublicaddressesofCongress.5.ThatthisCongresswasnot\"organizedundertheauspicesandwiththeconsentofthepeople,actingdirectlyintheirprimary,sovereigncapacity,andwithouttheinterventionofthefunctionariestowhomtheordinarypowersofgovernmentweredelegatedinthecolonies,\"but,onthecontrary,thatitwasorganizedbythecoloniesassuch,andgenerallythroughtheirordinarylegislatures;andalwayswithcarefulregardtotheirseparateandindependentrightsandpowers.
IftheCongressof1774was\"ageneralornationalgovernment,\"
neitherNewYorknorGeorgiawaspartytoit;forneitherofthemwasrepresentedinthatCongress.ItisalsoworthyofremarkthattheCongressof1774
hadnoagentsofitsowninforeigncountries,butemployedthoseoftheseveralcolonies.SeetheresolutionsfordeliveringtheaddresstotheKingpassedOctober25,1774,andthelettertotheagents,approvedonthefollowingday.
aMassachusetts,theparticularwrongsofwhicharejustbeforerecitedatlarge.
6.TheJournalsofCongressaffordthemostabundantandconclusiveproofsofthis.Inordertoshowthegeneralcharacteroftheirproceedings,itisenoughformetorefertothefollowing:
Onthe11thOctober,1774,itwas\"Resolvedunanimously,ThatamemorialbepreparedtothepeopleofBritishAmerica,statingtothemthenecessityofafirm,unitedandinvariableobservationofthemeasuresrecommendedbytheCongress,astheytendertheinvaluablerightsandlibertiesderivedtothemfromthelawsandConstitutionoftheircountry.\"
Thememorialwasaccordinglyprepared,inconformitywiththeresolution.
Congresshavingpreviouslyhadunderconsiderationtheplanofanassociationforestablishingnon-importation,&c.,finallyadoptedit,October20,1774.Afterrecitingtheirgrievances,theysay:
\"And,therefore,forourselvesandtheinhabitantsoftheseveralcolonieswhomwerepresent,firmlyagree,andassociate,underthesacredtiesofvirtue,honorandloveofourcountry,asfollows.\"Theythenproceedtorecommendacertaincourseofproceeding,suchasnon-importationandnon-consumptionofcertainBritishproductions;theyrecommendedtheappointmentofacommitteeineverycounty,cityandtown,towatchtheirfellow-citizens,inordertoascertainwhetherornot\"anypersonwithinthelimitsoftheirappointmenthasviolatedthisassociation\";andiftheyshouldfindanysuch,itistheirdutytoreportthem,\"totheend,thatallsuchfoestoTherightsofBritishAmericamayliepubliclyknown,anduniversallycontemnedastheenemiesofAmericanliberty;and,thenceforth,werespectivelywillbreakoffalldealingswithhimorher.\"Theyalsoresolve,thattheywill\"havenotrade,commerce,dealingsorintercoursewhatsoever,withanycolonyorprovinceinNorthAmerica,whichshallallnotaccedeto,orwhichshallhereafterviolatethisassociation,butwillholdthemasunworthyoftherightsoffreemen,andasinimicaltothelibertiesoftheircountry.\"
Thislooksverylittlelikethelegislationofthe\"generalornationalgovernment\"ofa\"nationdefacto.\"Themostimportantmeasuresofgeneralconcernareresteduponnostrongerfoundationthan\"thesacredtiesofvirtue,honor,andtheloveofourcountry,\"andhavenohighersanctionthanpubliccontemptandexclusionfromtheordinaryintercourseofsociety.
7.ThatthepowersgrantedtothedelegatestothesecondCongressweresubstantiallythesamewiththosegrantedtothedelegatestothefirst,willappearfromthefollowingextractsfromtheircredentials:NewHampshire.\"Toconsentandagreetoallmeasures,whichsaidCongressshalldeemnecessarytoobtainredressofAmericangrievances.\"DelegatesappointedbyaConvention.
Massachusetts.\"Toconcert,agreeupon,directandorderinconcertwiththedelegatesoftheothercolonies\"suchfurthermeasuresastothemshallappeartobethebestcalculatedfortherecoveryandestablishmentofAmericanrightsandliberties,andforrestoringharmonybetweenGreatBritainandthecolonies\"DelegatesappointedbyProvincialCongress.
Connecticut.\"Tojoin,consultandadvisewiththeothercoloniesinBritishAmerica,onpropermeasuresforadvancingthebestgoodofthecolonies.\"DelegatesappointedbytheColonialHouseofRepresentatives.
ThecolonyofNewYorkwasnotrepresentedinthisCongress,butdelegateswereappointedbyaconventionofdeputiesfromthecityandcountyofNewYork,thecityandcountyofAlbany,andthecountiesofDutchessUlster,Orange,Westchester,KingsandSuffolk.Theygavetheirdelegatespowerto\"concertanddetermineuponsuchmeasuresasshallbejudgedmosteffectualforthepreservationandre-establishmentofAmericanrightsandprivileges,andfortherestorationofharmonybetweenGreatBritainandthecolonies.\"Queen\'sCountyapprovedoftheproceeding.
Pennsylvania.Simplyto\"attendthegeneralCongress.\"
DelegatesappointedbyProvincialAssembly.
NewJersey.\"ToattendthecontinentalCongress,andtoreporttheirproceedingsatthenextsessionoftheGeneralAssembly.\"
DelegatesappointedbytheColonialAssembly.
Delaware.\"Toconcertandamuponsuchfurthermeasures,asshallappeartothembestcalculatedfortheaccommodationoftheunhappydifferencesbetweenGreatBritainandthecoloniesonaconstitutionalfoundation,whichtheHousemostardentlywishfor,andthattheyreporttheirproceedingstothenextsessionofGeneralAssembly.\"DelegatesappointedbytheAssembly.
Maryland\"Toconsentandagreetoallmeasures,WhichsaidCongressshalldeemnecessaryandeffectualtoobtainaredressofAmericangrievances;andthisprovincebindthemselvestoexecutetotheutmostoftheirpower,allresolutionswhichthesaidCongressmayadopt.\"
DelegatesappointedbyConvention,andsubsequentlyapprovedbytheGeneralassembly.
Virginia.\"TorepresentthecolonyingeneralCongress,tobeheld,&c.\"DelegatesappointedbyConvention.
NorthCarolina.\"Suchpowersanmaymakeanyactsdonebythem,oranyofthem,orconsentgiveninbehalfofthisprovince,obligatoryinhonoruponeveryinhabitantthereof,\"DelegatesappointedbyConventionandapprovedinGeneralAssembly.
SouthCarolina.\"Toconcert,agreeto,andeffectuallyprosecutesuchmeasures,asintheopinionofthesaiddeputies,andthedeputiestobeassembledshallbemostlikelytoobtainaredressofAmericangrievances.\"DelegatesappointedbyProvincialCongress.InthecopyoftheJournalsofCongressnowbeforeme,I
donotfindthecredentialsofthedelegatesfromRhodeIsland.TheydidnotattendatthefirstmeetingofCongress,althoughtheydidatthesubsequentperiod.GeorgiawasnotrepresentedinthisCongressuntilSeptember,1775.
Onthe13thMay,1775,LymanHallappearedasadelegatefromtheparishofSt.Johnsandhewasadmittedtohisseat,\"subjecttosuchregulationsastheCongressshalldetermine,relativetohisvoting.\"HewasneverregardedastherepresentativeofGeorgia,norwasthatcolonythenconsideredasapartytotheproceedingsofCongress.Thisisevidentfromthefactthat,intheaddresstotheinhabitantsofGreatBritain,theyusethestyle,\"ThetwelveUnitedColonies,bytheirdelegatesinCongress,totheinhabitantsofGreatBritain,\"adoptedonthe8thJuly,1775.Onthe20thofthatmonthCongresswerenotifiedthataconventionofGeorgiahadappointeddelegatestoattendthem,butnoneofthemtooktheirseatstillthe13thSeptemberfollowing.Theywereauthorized\"todo,transact,joinandconcurwiththeseveraldelegatesfromtheothercoloniesandprovincesupontheContinent,onallsuchmattersandthingsasshallappeareligibleandfit,atthisalarmingtime,forthepreservationanddefenceofourrightsandliberties,andfortherestorationofharmony,uponconstitutionalprinciples,betweenGreatBritainandAmerica.\"
Someofthecoloniesappointedtheirdelegatesonlyforlimitedtimes,attheexpirationofwhichtheywerereplacedbyothers,butwithoutanymaterialchangeintheirpowers.Thedelegateswere,inallthings,subjecttotheordersoftheirrespectivecolonies.
8.ThiswasdonebyPennsylvania.?[Sec92Dallas,Col.L.ofPenn.3.]
9.ThisstatementofJudgeStoryisinoppositiontothefollowinglanguageofJudgeHenryBaldwin,whowasconfessedlyoneoftheablestjuristswhohasgracedthebenchoftheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates:\"TheirSEPARATEINDEPENDENCEWASPROCLAIMED,andtheyremainedtowardseachotherastheywerebefore,ascolonies,andthenasStates;theydidnotaltertheirrelations;thesamedelegatesfromthecoloniesactedastherepresentativesofTheStates;sodeclaredthemselves,andcontinuedtheirsessionwithoutnewcredentials.Theappointingpowerbeingthesame,theseparatelegislatureofeachState,asaState,nation,orempire;THEPEOPLEthesupremehead,astheKing,theEmperor,theSovereign.ThesecolonieswerenotdeclaredtobefreeandindependentStatesbysubstitutingCongressintheplaceofKingandParliament;norbythepeopleoftheStates,transferringtotheUNITEDSTATESthatallegiancetheyhadowedtotheCrown.\"Bald.29.?[C.C.B.]
10.AdocumentwhichIhavesometwithelsewherebutwhichmaybefoundintheAppendixtoProfessorTucker\'selaborateandinstructiveLifeofJefferson,affordsimportantevidenceuponthispoint.AsearlyasMay,1775,theplanofa\"confederationandperpetualunion\"amongthecolonies,waspreparedandproposedforadoption.
Itwasnotinfactadopted,butitsprovisionsshow,inthestrongestmanner,inwhatlightthecoloniesregardedtheirrelationtooneanother.Theproposedunionwascalled\"afirmleagueoffriendship\";eachcolonyreservedtoitself\"asmuchasitmightthinkproperofitsownpresentlaws,customs,rights,privileges,andpeculiarjurisdictions,withinitsownlimits;
andmayamenditsownConstitutionasmayseembesttoitsownAssemblyorConvention\";theexternalrelationsofthecoloniesweretobemanagedbytheirgeneralgovernmentalone,andallamendmentsoftheir\"Constitution,\"
astheytermedit,weretobeproposedbyCongressand\"approvedbyamajorityofthecolonyassembles.\"Itcanscarcelybecontendedthatthis\"leagueoffriendship,\"this\"confederationandperpetualunion,\"would,ifithadbeenadopted,haverenderedthepeopleoftheseveralcolonieslessidenticalthantheywerebefore.If,intheiropinion,theywere\"onepeople\"
already,noleagueorconfederationwasnecessary,andnoonewouldhavethoughtofproposingit.Theveryfact,therefore,thatitwasproposed,asanecessarymeasure\"susceptiblefortheircommondefence\"againsttheirenemies,forthesecurityoftheirlibertiesandtheirproperties,thesafetyoftheirpersonsandfamilies,andtheirmutualandgeneralwelfare,\"
provesthattheydidnotconsiderthemselvesasalready\"onepeople,\"inanysenseortoanyextentwhichwouldenablethemtoeffectthoseimportantobjects.
ThispropositionwasdependingandundeterminedatthetimeoftheDeclarationofindependence.
11.Inpointoffact,Virginiadeclaredherindependenceonthe15thofMay,1776.ThefollowingbeautifulallusiontothatsceneisextractedfromanaddressdeliveredbyJudgeBeverlyTucker,ofWilliamandMaryCollege,beforethePetersburghLyceum,onthe15thofMay,1848:
Thatspectacle,onthisdaysixty-threeyearn,Virginiaexhibitedtotheworld;andthememoryofthatmajesticsceneitisnowmytasktorescuefromoblivion.ItwasonthatdaythatsherenouncedhercolonialdependenceonGreatBritain,andseparatedherselfforeverfromthatkingdom.
Thenitwasthat,burstingthemanaclesofaforeigntyranny,she,inthesamemomentimposedonherselfthesalutaryrestraintsoflawandorder.Inthatmomentshecommencedtheworkofformingagovernment,completewithinitself;andhavingperfectedthatwork,she,onthe29thofJuneinthesameyear,performedthehighestfunctionofindependentsovereignty,byadopting,ordaining,andestablishingtheConstitutionunderwhichallofuswereborn.Thenitwasthat,sufficienttoherselfforallthepurposesofgovernment,sheprescribedtheoathoffealtyandallegiancetohersoloandseparatesovereignty,whichallofus,whohaveheldanyofficeunderherauthority,havesolemnlycalledupontheSearcherofHeartstowitnessandrecord.Inthathour,gentlemen,itcouldnotbecertainlyknown,thattheothercolonieswouldtakethesamedecisivestep.Itwasindeed,expected.Inthesamebreathinwhichshehaddeclaredherownindependence,Virginiahadadvisedit.ShehadinstructedherdelegatesintheGeneralCongresstourgeit;anditwasbythevoiceofoneofhersons,whosenamewilleverproudlyliveinherhistory,thatthewordofpowerwasspoken,atwhichthechainthatboundthecoloniestotheparentkingdomfellasunder,asflaxthatseversatthetouchoffire.Buteventhen,andwhilethetermsofthegeneralDeclarationofIndependencewereyetunsettled,hershadalreadygoneforth.Thevoiceofherdefiancewasalreadyringinginthetyrant\'sears;herswasthecrythatsummonedhimtothestrife;herswastheshoutthatinvitedhisvengeance:\'Me!me!
Adsumquifeci;inme,converliteferrum.\'\"
Thisbeautifuladdress,aboundinginpatrioticsentiments,andsoundpoliticaldoctrines,clothedintherichestlanguage,oughttobeinthehandsofeverycitizen,particularlyofthoseofVirginia.ThefollowingextractfromtheJournalsoftheConvention,containingthehistoryofthisinterestingevent;cannotfailtobeacceptabletoeveryAmericanreader:\"Wednesday,May11th,1770.
\"Theconvention,then,Accordingtotheorderoftheday,resolveditselfintoacommitteeonthestateofthecolony;and,aftersometimespenttherein,Mr.Presidentresumedthechair,andMr.Caryreportedthatthecommitteehad,accordingtoorder,hadunderconsiderationthestateofthecolony;andhadcometothefollowingresolutionsthereupon;
whichhehadreadinhisplace,andafterwardsdeliveredattheclerk\'stable,wherethesamewereagaintwiceread,andunanimouslyagreedto,onehundredandtwelvemembersbeingpresent.
\"Forasmuchasalltheendeavorsoftheunitedcolonies,bythemostdecentrepresentationsandpetitionstotheKingandParliamentofGreatBritain,torestorepeaceandsecuritytoAmericaundertheBritishGovernment,andareunionwiththatpeople,uponjustandliberalterms,insteadofaredressofgrievances,haveproducedfromanimperiousandvindictiveadministration,increasedinsult,oppression,andavigorousattempttoeffectourtotaldestruction.Byalateact,allthecoloniesaredeclaredtobeinrebellion,andoutoftheprotectionoftheBritishCrown,ourpropertiessubjectedtoconfiscation,ourpeople,whencaptivated,compelledtojoinintheplunderandmurderoftheirrelationsandcountrymen,andallformerrapineandoppressionofAmericansdeclaredlegalandjust.