thatis,ithasgonetoofarforthem。Itstarescorruptionintheface,andthevenaltribeareallalarmed。Theirfeardiscoversitselfintheiroutrage,andtheyarebutpublishingthegroansofawoundedvice。ButfromsuchoppositiontheFrenchRevolution,insteadofsuffering,receivesanhomage。Themoreitisstruckthemoresparksitwillemit;andthefearisitwillnotbestruckenough。Ithasnothingtodreadfromattacks;
truthhasgivenitanestablishment,andtimewillrecorditwithanameaslastingashisown。
HavingnowtracedtheprogressoftheFrenchRevolutionthroughmostofitsprincipalstages,fromitscommencementtothetakingoftheBastille,anditsestablishmentbytheDeclarationofRights,IwillclosethesubjectwiththeenergeticapostropheofM。delaFayette—
\"Maythisgreatmonument,raisedtoLiberty,serveasalessontotheoppressor,andanexampletotheoppressed！\"*[11]MiscellaneousChapterTopreventinterruptingtheargumentintheprecedingpartofthiswork,orthenarrativethatfollowsit,IreservedsomeobservationstobethrowntogetherinaMiscellaneousChapter;bywhichvarietymightnotbecensuredforconfusion。Mr。Burke\'sbookisallMiscellany。HisintentionwastomakeanattackontheFrenchRevolution;butinsteadofproceedingwithanorderlyarrangement,hehasstormeditwithamobofideastumblingoveranddestroyingoneanother。
ButthisconfusionandcontradictioninMr。Burke\'sBookiseasilyaccountedfor。—Whenamaninawrongcauseattemptstosteerhiscoursebyanythingelsethansomepolartruthorprinciple,heissuretobelost。Itisbeyondthecompassofhiscapacitytokeepallthepartsofanargumenttogether,andmakethemuniteinoneissue,byanyothermeansthanhavingthisguidealwaysinview。Neithermemorynorinventionwillsupplythewantofit。
Theformerfailshim,andthelatterbetrayshim。
Notwithstandingthenonsense,foritdeservesnobettername,thatMr。
Burkehasassertedabouthereditaryrights,andhereditarysuccession,andthataNationhasnotarighttoformaGovernmentofitself;ithappenedtofallinhiswaytogivesomeaccountofwhatGovernmentis。\"Government,\"
sayshe,\"isacontrivanceofhumanwisdom。
Admittingthatgovernmentisacontrivanceofhumanwisdom,itmustnecessarilyfollow,thathereditarysuccession,andhereditaryrights（astheyarecalled）,canmakenopartofit,becauseitisimpossibletomakewisdomhereditary;andontheotherhand,thatcannotbeawisecontrivance,whichinitsoperationmaycommitthegovernmentofanationtothewisdomofanidiot。ThegroundwhichMr。Burkenowtakesisfataltoeverypartofhiscause。Theargumentchangesfromhereditaryrightstohereditarywisdom;andthequestionis,Whoisthewisestman？HemustnowshowthateveryoneinthelineofhereditarysuccessionwasaSolomon,orhistitleisnotgoodtobeaking。WhatastrokehasMr。Burkenowmade！Touseasailor\'sphrase,hehasswabbedthedeck,andscarcelyleftanamelegibleinthelistofKings;andhehasmoweddownandthinnedtheHouseofPeers,withascytheasformidableasDeathandTime。
ButMr。Burkeappearstohavebeenawareofthisretort;andhehastakencaretoguardagainstit,bymakinggovernmenttobenotonlyacontrivanceofhumanwisdom,butamonopolyofwisdom。Heputsthenationasfoolsononeside,andplaceshisgovernmentofwisdom,allwisemenofGotham,ontheotherside;andhethenproclaims,andsaysthat\"MenhaveaRIGHT
thattheirWANTSshouldbeprovidedforbythiswisdom。\"Havingthusmadeproclamation,henextproceedstoexplaintothemwhattheirwantsare,andalsowhattheirrightsare。Inthishehassucceededdextrously,forhemakestheirwantstobeawantofwisdom;butasthisiscoldcomfort,hetheninformsthem,thattheyhavearight（nottoanyofthewisdom）
buttobegovernedbyit;andinordertoimpressthemwithasolemnreverenceforthismonopoly—governmentofwisdom,andofitsvastcapacityforallpurposes,possibleorimpossible,rightorwrong,heproceedswithastrologicalmysteriousimportance,totelltothemitspowersinthesewords:\"Therightsofmeningovernmentaretheiradvantages;andtheseareofteninbalancebetweendifferencesofgood;andincompromisessometimesbetweengoodandevil,andsometimesbetweenevilandevil。Politicalreasonisacomputingprinciple;adding—subtracting—multiplying—anddividing,morallyandnotmetaphysicallyormathematically,truemoraldenominations。\"
Asthewonderingaudience,whomMr。Burkesupposeshimselftalkingto,maynotunderstandallthislearnedjargon,Iwillundertaketobeitsinterpreter。Themeaning,then,goodpeople,ofallthis,is:Thatgovernmentisgovernedbynoprinciplewhatever;thatitcanmakeevilgood,orgoodevil,justasitpleases。Inshort,thatgovernmentisarbitrarypower。
ButtherearesomethingswhichMr。Burkehasforgotten。First,hehasnotshownwherethewisdomoriginallycamefrom:andsecondly,hehasnotshownbywhatauthorityitfirstbegantoact。Inthemannerheintroducesthematter,itiseithergovernmentstealingwisdom,orwisdomstealinggovernment。Itiswithoutanorigin,anditspowerswithoutauthority。
Inshort,itisusurpation。
Whetheritbefromasenseofshame,orfromaconsciousnessofsomeradicaldefectinagovernmentnecessarytobekeptoutofsight,orfromboth,orfromanyothercause,Iundertakenottodetermine,butsoitis,thatamonarchicalreasonernevertracesgovernmenttoitssource,orfromitssource。Itisoneoftheshibbolethsbywhichhemaybeknown。
Athousandyearshence,thosewhoshallliveinAmericaorFrance,willlookbackwithcontemplativeprideontheoriginoftheirgovernment,andsay,Thiswastheworkofourgloriousancestors！Butwhatcanamonarchicaltalkersay？Whathashetoexultin？Alashehasnothing。Acertainsomethingforbidshimtolookbacktoabeginning,lestsomerobber,orsomeRobinHood,shouldrisefromthelongobscurityoftimeandsay,Iamtheorigin。
HardasMr。BurkelabouredattheRegencyBillandHereditarySuccessiontwoyearsago,andmuchashedivedforprecedents,hestillhadnotboldnessenoughtobringupWilliamofNormandy,andsay,Thereistheheadofthelist！thereisthefountainofhonour！thesonofaprostitute,andtheplundereroftheEnglishnation。
Theopinionsofmenwithrespecttogovernmentarechangingfastinallcountries。TheRevolutionsofAmericaandFrancehavethrownabeamoflightovertheworld,whichreachesintoman。Theenormousexpenseofgovernmentshasprovokedpeopletothink,bymakingthemfeel;andwhenoncetheveilbeginstorend,itadmitsnotofrepair。Ignoranceisofapeculiarnature:oncedispelled,itisimpossibletore—establishit。
Itisnotoriginallyathingofitself,butisonlytheabsenceofknowledge;
andthoughmanmaybekeptignorant,hecannotbemadeignorant。Themind,indiscoveringtruth,actsinthesamemannerasitactsthroughtheeyeindiscoveringobjects;whenonceanyobjecthasbeenseen,itisimpossibletoputthemindbacktothesameconditionitwasinbeforeitsawit。
Thosewhotalkofacounter—revolutioninFrance,showhowlittletheyunderstandofman。Theredoesnotexistinthecompassoflanguageanarrangementofwordstoexpresssomuchasthemeansofeffectingacounter—revolution。
Themeansmustbeanobliterationofknowledge;andithasneveryetbeendiscoveredhowtomakemanunknowhisknowledge,orunthinkhisthoughts。
Mr。Burkeislabouringinvaintostoptheprogressofknowledge;anditcomeswiththeworsegracefromhim,asthereisacertaintransactionknowninthecitywhichrendershimsuspectedofbeingapensionerinafictitiousname。Thismayaccountforsomestrangedoctrinehehasadvancedinhisbook,whichthoughhepointsitattheRevolutionSociety,iseffectuallydirectedagainstthewholenation。
\"TheKingofEngland,\"sayshe,\"holdshiscrown（foritdoesnotbelongtotheNation,accordingtoMr。Burke）incontemptofthechoiceoftheRevolutionSociety,whohavenotasinglevoteforakingamongthemeitherindividuallyorcollectively;andhisMajesty\'sheirseachintheirtimeandorder,willcometotheCrownwiththesamecontemptoftheirchoice,withwhichhisMajestyhassucceededtothatwhichhenowwears。\"
AstowhoisKinginEngland,orelsewhere,orwhetherthereisanyKingatall,orwhetherthepeoplechooseaCherokeechief,oraHessianhussarforaKing,itisnotamatterthatItroublemyselfabout—bethattothemselves;butwithrespecttothedoctrine,sofarasitrelatestotheRightsofMenandNations,itisasabominableasanythingeverutteredinthemostenslavedcountryunderheaven。Whetheritsoundsworsetomyear,bynotbeingaccustomedtohearsuchdespotism,thanwhatitdoestoanotherperson,Iamnotsowellajudgeof;butofitsabominableprincipleIamatnolosstojudge。
ItisnottheRevolutionSocietythatMr。Burkemeans;itistheNation,aswellinitsoriginalasinitsrepresentativecharacter;andhehastakencaretomakehimselfunderstood,bysayingthattheyhavenotavoteeithercollectivelyorindividually。TheRevolutionSocietyiscomposedofcitizensofalldenominations,andofmembersofboththeHousesofParliament;andconsequently,ifthereisnotarighttoavoteinanyofthecharacters,therecanbenorighttoanyeitherinthenationorinitsParliament。Thisoughttobeacautiontoeverycountryhowtoimportforeignfamiliestobekings。Itissomewhatcurioustoobserve,thatalthoughthepeopleofEnglandhadbeeninthehabitoftalkingaboutkings,itisalwaysaForeignHouseofKings;hatingForeignersyetgovernedbythem。—
ItisnowtheHouseofBrunswick,oneofthepettytribesofGermany。
IthashithertobeenthepracticeoftheEnglishParliamentstoregulatewhatwascalledthesuccession（takingitforgrantedthattheNationthencontinuedtoaccordtotheformofannexingamonarchicalbranchofitsgovernment;forwithoutthistheParliamentcouldnothavehadauthoritytohavesenteithertoHollandortoHanover,ortoimposeakinguponthenationagainstitswill）。AndthismustbetheutmostlimittowhichParliamentcangouponthiscase;buttherightoftheNationgoestothewholecase,becauseithastherightofchangingitswholeformofgovernment。
TherightofaParliamentisonlyarightintrust,arightbydelegation,andthatbutfromaverysmallpartoftheNation;andoneofitsHouseshasnoteventhis。ButtherightoftheNationisanoriginalright,asuniversalastaxation。Thenationisthepaymasterofeverything,andeverythingmustconformtoitsgeneralwill。
IremembertakingnoticeofaspeechinwhatiscalledtheEnglishHouseofPeers,bythethenEarlofShelburne,andIthinkitwasatthetimehewasMinister,whichisapplicabletothiscase。Idonotdirectlychargemymemorywitheveryparticular;butthewordsandthepurport,asnearlyasIremember,werethese:\"ThattheformofaGovernmentwasamatterwhollyatthewilloftheNationatalltimes,thatifitchoseamonarchicalform,ithadarighttohaveitso;andifitafterwardschosetobeaRepublic,ithadarighttobeaRepublic,andtosaytoaKing,\"Wehavenolongeranyoccasionforyou。\"
WhenMr。Burkesaysthat\"HisMajesty\'sheirsandsuccessors,eachintheirtimeandorder,willcometothecrownwiththesamecontentoftheirchoicewithwhichHisMajestyhadsucceededtothathewears,\"itissayingtoomucheventothehumblestindividualinthecountry;partofwhosedailylabourgoestowardsmakingupthemillionsterlinga—year,whichthecountrygivesthepersonitstylesaking。Governmentwithinsolenceisdespotism;butwhencontemptisaddeditbecomesworse;andtopayforcontemptistheexcessofslavery。ThisspeciesofgovernmentcomesfromGermany;andremindsmeofwhatoneoftheBrunswicksoldierstoldme,whowastakenprisonerby,theAmericansinthelatewar:\"Ah！\"saidhe,\"Americaisafinefreecountry,itisworththepeople\'sfightingfor;
Iknowthedifferencebyknowingmyown:inmycountry,iftheprincesayseatstraw,weeatstraw。\"Godhelpthatcountry,thoughtI,beitEnglandorelsewhere,whoselibertiesaretobeprotectedbyGermanprinciplesofgovernment,andPrincesofBrunswick！
AsMr。BurkesometimesspeaksofEngland,sometimesofFrance,andsometimesoftheworld,andofgovernmentingeneral,itisdifficulttoanswerhisbookwithoutapparentlymeetinghimonthesameground。AlthoughprinciplesofGovernmentaregeneralsubjects,itisnexttoimpossible,inmanycases,toseparatethemfromtheideaofplaceandcircumstance,andthemoresowhencircumstancesareputforarguments,whichisfrequentlythecasewithMr。Burke。
Intheformerpartofhisbook,addressinghimselftothepeopleofFrance,hesays:\"Noexperiencehastaughtus（meaningtheEnglish）,thatinanyothercourseormethodthanthatofahereditarycrown,canourlibertiesberegularlyperpetuatedandpreservedsacredasourhereditaryright。\"IaskMr。Burke,whoistotakethemaway？M。delaFayette,inspeakingtoFrance,says:\"ForaNationtobefree,itissufficientthatshewillsit。\"ButMr。BurkerepresentsEnglandaswantingcapacitytotakecareofitself,andthatitslibertiesmustbetakencareofbyaKingholdingitin\"contempt。\"IfEnglandissunktothis,itispreparingitselftoeatstraw,asinHanover,orinBrunswick。Butbesidesthefollyofthedeclaration,ithappensthatthefactsareallagainstMr。Burke。
Itwasbythegovernmentbeinghereditary,thatthelibertiesofthepeoplewereendangered。CharlesI。andJamesII。areinstancesofthistruth;
yetneitherofthemwentsofarastoholdtheNationincontempt。
Asitissometimesofadvantagetothepeopleofonecountrytohearwhatthoseofothercountrieshavetosayrespectingit,itispossiblethatthepeopleofFrancemaylearnsomethingfromMr。Burke\'sbook,andthatthepeopleofEnglandmayalsolearnsomethingfromtheanswersitwilloccasion。WhenNationsfalloutaboutfreedom,awidefieldofdebateisopened。Theargumentcommenceswiththerightsofwar,withoutitsevils,andasknowledgeistheobjectcontendedfor,thepartythatsustainsthedefeatobtainstheprize。
Mr。Burketalksaboutwhathecallsanhereditarycrown,asifitweresomeproductionofNature;orasif,likeTime,ithadapowertooperate,notonlyindependently,butinspiteofman;orasifitwereathingorasubjectuniversallyconsentedto。Alas！ithasnoneofthoseproperties,butisthereverseofthemall。Itisathinginimagination,theproprietyofwhichismorethandoubted,andthelegalityofwhichinafewyearswillbedenied。
But,toarrangethismatterinaclearerviewthanwhatgeneralexpressioncanheadsunderwhich（whatiscalled）anhereditarycrown,ormoreproperlyspeaking,anhereditarysuccessiontotheGovernmentofaNation,canbeconsidered;whichare—
First,TherightofaparticularFamilytoestablishitself。
Secondly,TherightofaNationtoestablishaparticularFamily。
Withrespecttothefirstoftheseheads,thatofaFamilyestablishingitselfwithhereditarypowersonitsownauthority,andindependentoftheconsentofaNation,allmenwillconcurincallingitdespotism;anditwouldbetrespassingontheirunderstandingtoattempttoproveit。
Butthesecondhead,thatofaNationestablishingaparticularFamilywithhereditarypowers,doesnotpresentitselfasdespotismonthefirstreflection;butifmenwillpermititasecondreflectiontotakeplace,andcarrythatreflectionforwardbutoneremoveoutoftheirownpersonstothatoftheiroffspring,theywillthenseethathereditarysuccessionbecomesinitsconsequencesthesamedespotismtoothers,whichtheyreprobatedforthemselves。Itoperatestoprecludetheconsentofthesucceedinggenerations;
andthepreclusionofconsentisdespotism。WhenthepersonwhoatanytimeshallbeinpossessionofaGovernment,orthosewhostandinsuccessiontohim,shallsaytoaNation,Iholdthispowerin\"contempt\"ofyou,itsignifiesnotonwhatauthorityhepretendstosayit。Itisnorelief,butanaggravationtoapersoninslavery,toreflectthathewassoldbyhisparent;andasthatwhichheightensthecriminalityofanactcannotbeproducedtoprovethelegalityofit,hereditarysuccessioncannotbeestablishedasalegalthing。
Inordertoarriveatamoreperfectdecisiononthishead,itwillbepropertoconsiderthegenerationwhichundertakestoestablishaFamilywithhereditarypowers,apartandseparatefromthegenerationswhicharetofollow;andalsotoconsiderthecharacterinwhichthefirstgenerationactswithrespecttosucceedinggenerations。
Thegenerationwhichfirstselectsaperson,andputshimattheheadofitsGovernment,eitherwiththetitleofKing,oranyotherdistinction,actsonitsownchoice,beitwiseorfoolish,asafreeagentforitselfThepersonsosetupisnothereditary,butselectedandappointed;andthegenerationwhosetshimup,doesnotliveunderahereditarygovernment,butunderagovernmentofitsownchoiceandestablishment。Werethegenerationwhosetshimup,andthepersonsosetup,toliveforever,itnevercouldbecomehereditarysuccession;andofconsequencehereditarysuccessioncanonlyfollowonthedeathofthefirstparties。
As,therefore,hereditarysuccessionisoutofthequestionwithrespecttothefirstgeneration,wehavenowtoconsiderthecharacterinwhichthatgenerationactswithrespecttothecommencinggeneration,andtoallsucceedingones。
Itassumesacharacter,towhichithasneitherrightnortitle。ItchangesitselffromaLegislatortoaTestator,andeffectstomakeitsWill,whichistohaveoperationafterthedemiseofthemakers,tobequeaththeGovernment;anditnotonlyattemptstobequeath,buttoestablishonthesucceedinggeneration,anewanddifferentformofGovernmentunderwhichitselflived。Itself,asalreadyobserved,livednotunderahereditaryGovernmentbutunderaGovernmentofitsownchoiceandestablishment;
anditnowattempts,byvirtueofawillandtestament（andwhichithasnotauthoritytomake）,totakefromthecommencinggeneration,andallfutureones,therightsandfreeagencybywhichitselfacted。
But,exclusiveoftherightwhichanygenerationhastoactcollectivelyasatestator,theobjectstowhichitappliesitselfinthiscase,arenotwithinthecompassofanylaw,orofanywillortestament。
Therightsofmeninsociety,areneitherdevisableortransferable,norannihilable,butaredescendableonly,anditisnotinthepowerofanygenerationtointerceptfinally,andcutoffthedescent。Ifthepresentgeneration,oranyother,aredisposedtobeslaves,itdoesnotlessentherightofthesucceedinggenerationtobefree。Wrongscannothavealegaldescent。WhenMr。BurkeattemptstomaintainthattheEnglishnationdidattheRevolutionof1688,mostsolemnlyrenounceandabdicatetheirrightsforthemselves,andforalltheirposterityforever,hespeaksalanguagethatmeritsnotreply,andwhichcanonlyexcitecontemptforhisprostituteprinciples,orpityforhisignorance。
Inwhateverlighthereditarysuccession,asgrowingoutofthewillandtestamentofsomeformergeneration,presentsitself,itisanabsurdity。
AcannotmakeawilltotakefromBthepropertyofB,andgiveittoC;
yetthisisthemannerinwhich（whatiscalled）hereditarysuccessionbylawoperates。Acertainformergenerationmadeawill,totakeawaytherightsofthecommencinggeneration,andallfutureones,andconveythoserightstoathirdperson,whoafterwardscomesforward,andtellsthem,inMr。Burke\'slanguage,thattheyhavenorights,thattheirrightsarealreadybequeathedtohimandthathewillgovernincontemptofthem。
Fromsuchprinciples,andsuchignorance,goodLorddelivertheworld！
But,afterall,whatisthismetaphorcalledacrown,orratherwhatismonarchy？Isitathing,orisitaname,orisitafraud？Isita\"contrivanceofhumanwisdom,\"orofhumancrafttoobtainmoneyfromanationunderspeciouspretences？Isitathingnecessarytoanation？Ifitis,inwhatdoesthatnecessityconsist,whatservicedoesitperform,whatisitsbusiness,andwhatareitsmerits？Doesthevirtueconsistinthemetaphor,orintheman？Doththegoldsmiththatmakesthecrown,makethevirtuealso？DothitoperatelikeFortunatus\'swishing—cap,orHarlequin\'swoodensword？Dothitmakeamanaconjurer？Infine,whatisit？Itappearstobesomethinggoingmuchoutoffashion,fallingintoridicule,andrejectedinsomecountries,bothasunnecessaryandexpensive。
InAmericaitisconsideredasanabsurdity;andinFranceithassofardeclined,thatthegoodnessoftheman,andtherespectforhispersonalcharacter,aretheonlythingsthatpreservetheappearanceofitsexistence。
IfgovernmentbewhatMr。Burkedescribesit,\"acontrivanceofhumanwisdom\"Imightaskhim,ifwisdomwasatsuchalowebbinEngland,thatitwasbecomenecessarytoimportitfromHollandandfromHanover？ButIwilldothecountrythejusticetosay,thatwasnotthecase;andevenifitwasitmistookthecargo。Thewisdomofeverycountry,whenproperlyexerted,issufficientforallitspurposes;andtherecouldexistnomorerealoccasioninEnglandtohavesentforaDutchStadtholder,oraGermanElector,thantherewasinAmericatohavedoneasimilarthing。Ifacountrydoesnotunderstanditsownaffairs,howisaforeignertounderstandthem,whoknowsneitheritslaws,itsmanners,noritslanguage？Ifthereexistedamansotranscendentlywiseaboveallothers,thathiswisdomwasnecessarytoinstructanation,somereasonmightbeofferedformonarchy;butwhenwecastoureyesaboutacountry,andobservehoweverypartunderstandsitsownaffairs;andwhenwelookaroundtheworld,andseethatofallmeninit,theraceofkingsarethemostinsignificantincapacity,ourreasoncannotfailtoaskus—Whatarethosemenkeptfor？
IfthereisanythinginmonarchywhichwepeopleofAmericadonotunderstand,IwishMr。Burkewouldbesokindastoinformus。IseeinAmerica,agovernmentextendingoveracountrytentimesaslargeasEngland,andconductedwithregularity,forafortiethpartoftheexpensewhichGovernmentcostsinEngland。IfIaskamaninAmericaifhewantsaKing,heretorts,andasksmeifItakehimforanidiot？Howisitthatthisdifferencehappens？arewemoreorlesswisethanothers？IseeinAmericathegeneralityofpeoplelivinginastyleofplentyunknowninmonarchicalcountries;
andIseethattheprincipleofitsgovernment,whichisthatoftheequalRightsofMan,ismakingarapidprogressintheworld。
Ifmonarchyisauselessthing,whyisitkeptupanywhere？andifanecessarything,howcanitbedispensedwith？Thatcivilgovernmentisnecessary,allcivilizednationswillagree;butcivilgovernmentisrepublicangovernment。AllthatpartofthegovernmentofEnglandwhichbeginswiththeofficeofconstable,andproceedsthroughthedepartmentofmagistrate,quarter—sessions,andgeneralassize,includingtrialbyjury,isrepublicangovernment。Nothingofmonarchyappearsinanypartofit,exceptinthenamewhichWilliamtheConquerorimposedupontheEnglish,thatofobligingthemtocallhim\"TheirSovereignLordtheKing。\"
Itiseasytoconceivethatabandofinterestedmen,suchasPlacemen,Pensioners,Lordsofthebed—chamber,Lordsofthekitchen,Lordsofthenecessary—house,andtheLordknowswhatbesides,canfindasmanyreasonsformonarchyastheirsalaries,paidattheexpenseofthecountry,amountto;butifIaskthefarmer,themanufacturer,themerchant,thetradesman,anddownthroughalltheoccupationsoflifetothecommonlabourer,whatservicemonarchyistohim？hecangivemenoanswer。IfIaskhimwhatmonarchyis,hebelievesitissomethinglikeasinecure。