Whatareeconomicinstitutionsbutaproductofhumanfeelingsandthought，ofhumanactions，humancustomsandhumanlaws？Andjustthiscausesustoapplythestandardofjusticetotheirresults，justthismakesusinquirewhethertheyandtheireffectsarejustorunjust。Wedonotrequirethedistributionofincomesorwealthtobejustabsolutely；wedonotrequireitoftechnicaleconomicactswhichdonotconcernothers；butwedorequirethenumerouseconomicactswhichonthebasisofbarteranddivisionoflaborconcernothersandentirecommunitiestobejust。
Wheresuchactscomeintoconsiderationourobservationsdiscernmoralcommunities，theircommonaimsandthehumanqualities，whichareconnectedwiththeseaims。
Themostprimitivebarterisimpossible，unless。betweenthepartiespractisingitregularly，acertainmoralunderstandingexists。Theremusthavebeenanexpressorsilentmutualagreementtopreservepeace。Thebarterersmusthavecommonconceptionsofvalue，mustrecognizeacommonlaw。Everysellerformswiththepurchaser，whostandsbeforehimatthemomentofthetransaction，amoralunionofconfidence。
Inepochsofprimitiveculture，inthesocialcommunitiesoffamilies，ofkinship，oftribes，ofleagues，thereexistsanuncommonlystrongfeelingofsolidaritywhichthereforeleadstoveryfar—reachingdemandsofjusticewithinthesecircles，aswellastoacompleteobtusenessofthesamefeelingbeyondthem。
Withahigherdegreeofculturethesesmallcommunitieslose，theindividualandthegreatercommunitiesgaininimportance。Nowtheindividualandnowthecommunityappearsmoreintheforeground，andaccordinglytheconsciousnessofthecommunityofinterestswillchangeinintensity。Intheperiodsinwhichtheindividual’sorthefamily’stechnicaleconomiclifestillforms，withoutmoreextensiveintercourse，withoutmoreelaboratedivisionoflabor，thecentreofgravityineconomics，thefeelingofcommunityineconomicmatterswillrecede。Thefurtherthedivisionoflaborprogresses，themoreinextricablywillthethreadsofintercourseinvolvetheindividualinaninsolublesocialcommunity，themorethewholeproductionwillassumethecharacterofageneral，notanindividualconcern。Thenthecommonfunctionsofthelocalandthenationalcommunitywillthrive，individualswillbemoreandmoredislodgedbysocialleaders。Everylargerundertaking，wheneveritunitescontinuouslyacertainnumberofmenforacommoneconomicpurpose，revealsitselfasamoralcommunity。Itgovernstheexternalandinternallifeofallparticipants，determinestheirresidence，school，divisionoftime，familylife，toacertaindegreetheirmentalhorizon，educationandpleasure。Therelationsofthoseconcernednecessarilyexchangeamerelyeconomicforagenerallymoralcharacter。Andtherefromtheconceptionarises；hereacommonproductionexists，henceamoralcommunity。Andthatleadstothequestion：Istherelationbetweentheparticipants，isthedivisionoftheproductsajustone？Andsimilarconsiderationsfollowforwholeindustries，forwholesocialclasses，andthisallthemore；themorefrequentlytheemployersandthelaborersareorganizedintoassociationsandsocieties。TheyalsoresultforwholeStatesandunionsofStates。