Themasterswhoinstructedtheyoungpeople，eitherinmusicorinmilitaryexercises，donotseemtohavebeenpaid，orevenappointedbythestate，eitherinRomeoreveninAthens，theGreekrepublicofwhoselawsandcustomswearethebestinformed。Thestaterequiredthateveryfreecitizenshouldfithimselffordefendingitinwar，andshould，uponthataccount，learnhismilitaryexercises。Butitlefthimtolearnthemofsuchmastersashecouldfind，anditseemstohaveadvancednothingforthispurposebutapublicfieldorplaceofexerciseinwhichheshouldpractiseandperformthem。
IntheearlyagesbothoftheGreekandRomanrepublics，theotherpartsofeducationseemtohaveconsistedinlearningtoread，write，andaccountaccordingtothearithmeticofthetimes。Theseaccomplishmentstherichercitizensseemfrequentlytohaveacquiredathomebytheassistanceofsomedomesticpedagogue，whowasgenerallyeitheraslaveorafreed—man;andthepoorercitizens，intheschoolsofsuchmastersasmadeatradeofteachingforhire。Suchpartsofeducation，however，wereabandonedaltogethertothecareoftheparentsorguardiansofeachindividual。Itdoesnotappearthatthestateeverassumedanyinspectionordirectionofthem。ByalawofSolon，indeed，thechildrenwereacquittedfrommaintainingthoseparentsintheiroldagewhohadneglectedtoinstructtheminsomeprofitabletradeorbusiness。
Intheprogressofrefinement，whenphilosophyandrhetoriccameintofashion，thebettersortofpeopleusedtosendtheirchildrentotheschoolsofphilosophersandrhetoricians，inordertobeinstructedinthesefashionablesciences。Butthoseschoolswerenotsupportedbythepublic。Theywereforalongtimebarelytoleratedbyit。Thedemandforphilosophyandrhetoricwasforalongtimesosmallthatthefirstprofessedteachersofeithercouldnotfindconstantemploymentinanyonecity，butwereobligedtotravelaboutfromplacetoplace。InthismannerlivedZenoofElea，Protagoras，Gorgias，Hippias，andmanyothers。Asthedemandincreased，theschoolsbothofphilosophyandrhetoricbecamestationary;firstinAthens，andafterwardsinseveralothercities。Thestate，however，seemsnevertohaveencouragedthemfurtherthanbyassigningsomeofthemaparticularplacetoteachin，whichwassometimesdone，too，byprivatedonors。ThestateseemstohaveassignedtheAcademytoPlato，theLyceumtoAristotle，andthePorticotoZenoofCitta，thefounderoftheStoics。ButEpicurusbequeathedhisgardenstohisownschool。TillaboutthetimeofMarcusAntonius，however，noteacherappearstohavehadanysalaryfromthepublic，ortohavehadanyotheremolumentsbutwhatarosefromthehonorariesorfeesofhisscholars。Thebountywhichthatphilosophicalemperor，aswelearnfromLucian，bestowedupononeoftheteachersofphilosophy，probablylastednolongerthanhisownlife。Therewasnothingequivalenttotheprivilegesofgraduation，andtohaveattendedanyofthoseschoolswasnotnecessary，inordertobepermittedtopractiseanyparticulartradeorprofession。Iftheopinionoftheirownutilitycouldnotdrawscholarstothem，thelawneitherforcedanybodytogotothemnorrewardedanybodyforhavinggonetothem。Theteachershadnojurisdictionovertheirpupils，noranyotherauthoritybesidesthatnaturalauthority，whichsuperiorvirtueandabilitiesneverfailtoprocurefromyoungpeopletowardsthosewhoareentrustedwithanypartoftheireducation。
AtRome，thestudyofthecivillawmadeapartoftheeducation，notofthegreaterpartofthecitizens，butofsomeparticularfamilies。Theyoungpeople，however，whowishedtoacquireknowledgeinthelaw，hadnopublicschooltogoto，andhadnoothermethodofstudyingitthanbyfrequentingthecompanyofsuchoftheirrelationsandfriendsasweresupposedtounderstandit。Itisperhapsworthwhiletoremark，thatthoughtheLawsoftheTwelveTableswere，manyofthem，copiedfromthoseofsomeancientGreekrepublics，yetlawneverseemstohavegrownuptobeascienceinanyrepublicofancientGreece。InRomeitbecameascienceveryearly，andgaveaconsiderabledegreeofillustrationtothosecitizenswhohadthereputationofunderstandingit。IntherepublicsofancientGreece，particularlyinAthens，theordinarycourtsofjusticeconsistedofnumerous，andthereforedisorderly，bodiesofpeople，whofrequentlydecidedalmostatrandom，orasclamour，faction，andpartyspirithappenedtodetermine。Theignominyofanunjustdecision，whenitwastobedividedamongfivehundred，athousand，orfifteenhundredpeople（forsomeoftheircourtsweresoverynumerous），couldnotfallveryheavyuponanyindividual。AtRome，onthecontrary，theprincipalcourtsofjusticeconsistedeitherofasinglejudgeorofasmallnumberofjudges，whosecharacters，especiallyastheydeliberatedalwaysinpublic，couldnotfailtobeverymuchaffectedbyanyrashorunjustdecision。Indoubtfulcasessuchcourts，fromtheiranxietytoavoidblame，wouldnaturallyendeavourtoshelterthemselvesundertheexampleorprecedentofthejudgeswhohadsatbeforethem，eitherinthesameorinsomeothercourt。ThisattentiontopracticeandprecedentnecessarilyformedtheRomanlawintothatregularandorderlysysteminwhichithasbeendelivereddowntous;andthelikeattentionhashadthelikeeffectsuponthelawsofeveryothercountrywheresuchattentionhastakenplace。ThesuperiorityofcharacterintheRomansoverthatoftheGreeks，somuchremarkedbyPolybiusandDionysiusofHalicarnassus，wasprobablymoreowingtothebetterconstitutionoftheircourtsofjusticethantoanyofthecircumstancestowhichthoseauthorsascribeit。
TheRomansaresaidtohavebeenparticularlydistinguishedfortheirsuperiorrespecttoanoath。Butthepeoplewhowereaccustomedtomakeoathonlybeforesomediligentandwell—informedcourtofjusticewouldnaturallybemuchmoreattentivetowhattheysworethantheywhowereaccustomedtodothesamethingbeforemobbishanddisorderlyassemblies。