Inexaminingtheancientconstitutionofthejudicialpower，amongstmostEuropeannations，twothingsstrikethemind—theindependenceofthatpower，andtheextentofitsfunctions。Notonlydidthecourtsofjusticedecidealmostalldifferencesbetweenprivatepersons，butinverymanycasestheyactedasarbitersbetweenprivatepersonsandtheState。Idonotherealludetothepoliticalandadministrativeofficeswhichcourtsofjudicaturehadinsomecountriesusurped，butthejudicialofficecommontothemall。InmostofthecountriesofEurope，therewere，andtherestillare，manyprivaterights，connectedforthemostpartwiththegeneralrightofproperty，whichstoodundertheprotectionofthecourtsofjustice，andwhichtheStatecouldnotviolatewithouttheirsanction。Itwasthissemi—politicalpowerwhichmainlydistinguishedtheEuropeancourtsofjudicaturefromallothers;forallnationshavehadjudges，butallhavenotinvestedtheirjudgeswiththesameprivileges。UponexaminingwhatisnowoccurringamongstthedemocraticnationsofEuropewhicharecalledfree，aswellasamongsttheothers，itwillbeobservedthatnewandmoredependentcourtsareeverywherespringingupbythesideoftheoldones，fortheexpresspurposeofdeciding，byanextraordinaryjurisdiction，suchlitigatedmattersasmayarisebetweenthegovernmentandprivatepersons。Theelderjudicialpowerretainsitsindependence，butitsjurisdictionisnarrowed;
andthereisagrowingtendencytoreduceittobeexclusivelythearbiterbetweenprivateinterests。Thenumberofthesespecialcourtsofjusticeiscontinuallyincreasing，andtheirfunctionsincreaselikewise。Thusthegovernmentismoreandmoreabsolvedfromthenecessityofsubjectingitspolicyanditsrightstothesanctionofanotherpower。Asjudgescannotbedispensedwith，atleasttheStateistoselectthem，andalwaystoholdthemunderitscontrol;sothat，betweenthegovernmentandprivateindividuals，theyplacetheeffigyofjusticeratherthanjusticeitself。TheStateisnotsatisfiedwithdrawingallconcernstoitself，butitacquiresanever—increasingpowerofdecidingonthemallwithoutrestrictionandwithoutappeal。*d[Footnoted:AstrangesophismhasbeenmadeonthisheadinFrance。Whenasuitarisesbetweenthegovernmentandaprivateperson，itisnottobetriedbeforeanordinaryjudge—inorder，theysay，nottomixtheadministrativeandthejudicialpowers;asifitwerenottomixthosepowers，andtomixtheminthemostdangerousandoppressivemanner，toinvestthegovernmentwiththeofficeofjudgingandadministeringatthesametime。]
ThereexistsamongstthemodernnationsofEuropeonegreatcause，independentofallthosewhichhavealreadybeenpointedout，whichperpetuallycontributestoextendtheagencyortostrengthentheprerogativeofthesupremepower，thoughithasnotbeensufficientlyattendedto:Imeanthegrowthofmanufactures，whichisfosteredbytheprogressofsocialequality。Manufacturesgenerallycollectamultitudeofmenofthesamespot，amongstwhomnewandcomplexrelationsspringup。
Thesemenareexposedbytheircallingtogreatandsuddenalternationsofplentyandwant，duringwhichpublictranquillityisendangered。Itmayalsohappenthattheseemploymentssacrificethehealth，andeventhelife，ofthosewhogainbythem，orofthosewholivebythem。Thusthemanufacturingclassesrequiremoreregulation，superintendence，andrestraintthantheotherclassesofsociety，anditisnaturalthatthepowersofgovernmentshouldincreaseinthesameproportionasthoseclasses。
Thisisatruthofgeneralapplication;whatfollowsmoreespeciallyconcernsthenationsofEurope。Inthecenturieswhichprecededthatinwhichwelive，thearistocracywasinpossessionofthesoil，andwascompetenttodefendit:landedpropertywasthereforesurroundedbyamplesecurities，anditspossessorsenjoyedgreatindependence。Thisgaverisetolawsandcustomswhichhavebeenperpetuated，notwithstandingthesubdivisionoflandsandtheruinofthenobility;and，atthepresenttime，landownersandagriculturistsarestillthoseamongstthecommunitywhomusteasilyescapefromthecontrolofthesupremepower。Inthesesamearistocraticages，inwhichallthesourcesofourhistoryaretobetraced，personalpropertywasofsmallimportance，andthosewhopossesseditweredespisedandweak:themanufacturingclassformedanexceptioninthemidstofthosearistocraticcommunities;asithadnocertainpatronage，itwasnotoutwardlyprotected，andwasoftenunabletoprotectitself。